Refactor PDF export (#4154)

Co-authored-by: Laurenz <laurmaedje@gmail.com>

14 files changed, 2896 insertions, 2039 deletions

diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/catalog.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/catalog.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7d52cc58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/catalog.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,278 @@
+use std::num::NonZeroUsize;
+
+use ecow::eco_format;
+use pdf_writer::{
+    types::Direction, writers::PageLabel, Finish, Name, Pdf, Ref, Str, TextStr,
+};
+use xmp_writer::{DateTime, LangId, RenditionClass, Timezone, XmpWriter};
+
+use typst::foundations::{Datetime, Smart};
+use typst::layout::Dir;
+use typst::text::Lang;
+
+use crate::WithEverything;
+use crate::{hash_base64, outline, page::PdfPageLabel};
+
+/// Write the document catalog.
+pub fn write_catalog(
+    ctx: WithEverything,
+    ident: Smart<&str>,
+    timestamp: Option<Datetime>,
+    pdf: &mut Pdf,
+    alloc: &mut Ref,
+) {
+    let lang = ctx
+        .resources
+        .languages
+        .iter()
+        .max_by_key(|(_, &count)| count)
+        .map(|(&l, _)| l);
+
+    let dir = if lang.map(Lang::dir) == Some(Dir::RTL) {
+        Direction::R2L
+    } else {
+        Direction::L2R
+    };
+
+    // Write the outline tree.
+    let outline_root_id = outline::write_outline(pdf, alloc, &ctx);
+
+    // Write the page labels.
+    let page_labels = write_page_labels(pdf, alloc, &ctx);
+
+    // Write the document information.
+    let info_ref = alloc.bump();
+    let mut info = pdf.document_info(info_ref);
+    let mut xmp = XmpWriter::new();
+    if let Some(title) = &ctx.document.title {
+        info.title(TextStr(title));
+        xmp.title([(None, title.as_str())]);
+    }
+
+    let authors = &ctx.document.author;
+    if !authors.is_empty() {
+        // Turns out that if the authors are given in both the document
+        // information dictionary and the XMP metadata, Acrobat takes a little
+        // bit of both: The first author from the document information
+        // dictionary and the remaining authors from the XMP metadata.
+        //
+        // To fix this for Acrobat, we could omit the remaining authors or all
+        // metadata from the document information catalog (it is optional) and
+        // only write XMP. However, not all other tools (including Apple
+        // Preview) read the XMP data. This means we do want to include all
+        // authors in the document information dictionary.
+        //
+        // Thus, the only alternative is to fold all authors into a single
+        // `<rdf:li>` in the XMP metadata. This is, in fact, exactly what the
+        // PDF/A spec Part 1 section 6.7.3 has to say about the matter. It's a
+        // bit weird to not use the array (and it makes Acrobat show the author
+        // list in quotes), but there's not much we can do about that.
+        let joined = authors.join(", ");
+        info.author(TextStr(&joined));
+        xmp.creator([joined.as_str()]);
+    }
+
+    let creator = eco_format!("Typst {}", env!("CARGO_PKG_VERSION"));
+    info.creator(TextStr(&creator));
+    xmp.creator_tool(&creator);
+
+    let keywords = &ctx.document.keywords;
+    if !keywords.is_empty() {
+        let joined = keywords.join(", ");
+        info.keywords(TextStr(&joined));
+        xmp.pdf_keywords(&joined);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(date) = ctx.document.date.unwrap_or(timestamp) {
+        let tz = ctx.document.date.is_auto();
+        if let Some(pdf_date) = pdf_date(date, tz) {
+            info.creation_date(pdf_date);
+            info.modified_date(pdf_date);
+        }
+        if let Some(xmp_date) = xmp_date(date, tz) {
+            xmp.create_date(xmp_date);
+            xmp.modify_date(xmp_date);
+        }
+    }
+
+    info.finish();
+    xmp.num_pages(ctx.document.pages.len() as u32);
+    xmp.format("application/pdf");
+    xmp.language(ctx.resources.languages.keys().map(|lang| LangId(lang.as_str())));
+
+    // A unique ID for this instance of the document. Changes if anything
+    // changes in the frames.
+    let instance_id = hash_base64(&pdf.as_bytes());
+
+    // Determine the document's ID. It should be as stable as possible.
+    const PDF_VERSION: &str = "PDF-1.7";
+    let doc_id = if let Smart::Custom(ident) = ident {
+        // We were provided with a stable ID. Yay!
+        hash_base64(&(PDF_VERSION, ident))
+    } else if ctx.document.title.is_some() && !ctx.document.author.is_empty() {
+        // If not provided from the outside, but title and author were given, we
+        // compute a hash of them, which should be reasonably stable and unique.
+        hash_base64(&(PDF_VERSION, &ctx.document.title, &ctx.document.author))
+    } else {
+        // The user provided no usable metadata which we can use as an `/ID`.
+        instance_id.clone()
+    };
+
+    // Write IDs.
+    xmp.document_id(&doc_id);
+    xmp.instance_id(&instance_id);
+    pdf.set_file_id((doc_id.clone().into_bytes(), instance_id.into_bytes()));
+
+    xmp.rendition_class(RenditionClass::Proof);
+    xmp.pdf_version("1.7");
+
+    let xmp_buf = xmp.finish(None);
+    let meta_ref = alloc.bump();
+    pdf.stream(meta_ref, xmp_buf.as_bytes())
+        .pair(Name(b"Type"), Name(b"Metadata"))
+        .pair(Name(b"Subtype"), Name(b"XML"));
+
+    // Write the document catalog.
+    let catalog_ref = alloc.bump();
+    let mut catalog = pdf.catalog(catalog_ref);
+    catalog.pages(ctx.page_tree_ref);
+    catalog.viewer_preferences().direction(dir);
+    catalog.metadata(meta_ref);
+
+    // Write the named destination tree.
+    let mut name_dict = catalog.names();
+    let mut dests_name_tree = name_dict.destinations();
+    let mut names = dests_name_tree.names();
+    for &(name, dest_ref, ..) in &ctx.references.named_destinations.dests {
+        names.insert(Str(name.as_str().as_bytes()), dest_ref);
+    }
+    names.finish();
+    dests_name_tree.finish();
+    name_dict.finish();
+
+    // Insert the page labels.
+    if !page_labels.is_empty() {
+        let mut num_tree = catalog.page_labels();
+        let mut entries = num_tree.nums();
+        for (n, r) in &page_labels {
+            entries.insert(n.get() as i32 - 1, *r);
+        }
+    }
+
+    if let Some(outline_root_id) = outline_root_id {
+        catalog.outlines(outline_root_id);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(lang) = lang {
+        catalog.lang(TextStr(lang.as_str()));
+    }
+
+    catalog.finish();
+}
+
+/// Write the page labels.
+pub(crate) fn write_page_labels(
+    chunk: &mut Pdf,
+    alloc: &mut Ref,
+    ctx: &WithEverything,
+) -> Vec<(NonZeroUsize, Ref)> {
+    // If there is no exported page labeled, we skip the writing
+    if !ctx.pages.iter().filter_map(Option::as_ref).any(|p| {
+        p.label
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_some_and(|l| l.prefix.is_some() || l.style.is_some())
+    }) {
+        return Vec::new();
+    }
+
+    let mut result = vec![];
+    let empty_label = PdfPageLabel::default();
+    let mut prev: Option<&PdfPageLabel> = None;
+
+    // Skip non-exported pages for numbering.
+    for (i, page) in ctx.pages.iter().filter_map(Option::as_ref).enumerate() {
+        let nr = NonZeroUsize::new(1 + i).unwrap();
+        // If there are pages with empty labels between labeled pages, we must
+        // write empty PageLabel entries.
+        let label = page.label.as_ref().unwrap_or(&empty_label);
+
+        if let Some(pre) = prev {
+            if label.prefix == pre.prefix
+                && label.style == pre.style
+                && label.offset == pre.offset.map(|n| n.saturating_add(1))
+            {
+                prev = Some(label);
+                continue;
+            }
+        }
+
+        let id = alloc.bump();
+        let mut entry = chunk.indirect(id).start::<PageLabel>();
+
+        // Only add what is actually provided. Don't add empty prefix string if
+        // it wasn't given for example.
+        if let Some(prefix) = &label.prefix {
+            entry.prefix(TextStr(prefix));
+        }
+
+        if let Some(style) = label.style {
+            entry.style(style.to_pdf_numbering_style());
+        }
+
+        if let Some(offset) = label.offset {
+            entry.offset(offset.get() as i32);
+        }
+
+        result.push((nr, id));
+        prev = Some(label);
+    }
+
+    result
+}
+
+/// Converts a datetime to a pdf-writer date.
+fn pdf_date(datetime: Datetime, tz: bool) -> Option<pdf_writer::Date> {
+    let year = datetime.year().filter(|&y| y >= 0)? as u16;
+
+    let mut pdf_date = pdf_writer::Date::new(year);
+
+    if let Some(month) = datetime.month() {
+        pdf_date = pdf_date.month(month);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(day) = datetime.day() {
+        pdf_date = pdf_date.day(day);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(h) = datetime.hour() {
+        pdf_date = pdf_date.hour(h);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(m) = datetime.minute() {
+        pdf_date = pdf_date.minute(m);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(s) = datetime.second() {
+        pdf_date = pdf_date.second(s);
+    }
+
+    if tz {
+        pdf_date = pdf_date.utc_offset_hour(0).utc_offset_minute(0);
+    }
+
+    Some(pdf_date)
+}
+
+/// Converts a datetime to an xmp-writer datetime.
+fn xmp_date(datetime: Datetime, tz: bool) -> Option<xmp_writer::DateTime> {
+    let year = datetime.year().filter(|&y| y >= 0)? as u16;
+    Some(DateTime {
+        year,
+        month: datetime.month(),
+        day: datetime.day(),
+        hour: datetime.hour(),
+        minute: datetime.minute(),
+        second: datetime.second(),
+        timezone: if tz { Some(Timezone::Utc) } else { None },
+    })
+}
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/color.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/color.rs
index 4c35d9a2..dbd07d63 100644
--- a/crates/typst-pdf/src/color.rs
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/color.rs
@@ -1,10 +1,8 @@
 use once_cell::sync::Lazy;
-use pdf_writer::types::DeviceNSubtype;
-use pdf_writer::{writers, Chunk, Dict, Filter, Name, Ref};
+use pdf_writer::{types::DeviceNSubtype, writers, Chunk, Dict, Filter, Name, Ref};
 use typst::visualize::{Color, ColorSpace, Paint};
 
-use crate::deflate;
-use crate::page::{PageContext, Transforms};
+use crate::{content, deflate, PdfChunk, Renumber, WithResources};
 
 // The names of the color spaces.
 pub const SRGB: Name<'static> = Name(b"srgb");
@@ -30,118 +28,166 @@ static OKLAB_DEFLATED: Lazy<Vec<u8>> =
 /// The color spaces present in the PDF document
 #[derive(Default)]
 pub struct ColorSpaces {
-    oklab: Option<Ref>,
-    srgb: Option<Ref>,
-    d65_gray: Option<Ref>,
+    use_oklab: bool,
+    use_srgb: bool,
+    use_d65_gray: bool,
     use_linear_rgb: bool,
 }
 
 impl ColorSpaces {
-    /// Get a reference to the oklab color space.
-    ///
-    /// # Warning
-    /// The A and B components of the color must be offset by +0.4 before being
-    /// encoded into the PDF file.
-    pub fn oklab(&mut self, alloc: &mut Ref) -> Ref {
-        *self.oklab.get_or_insert_with(|| alloc.bump())
-    }
-
-    /// Get a reference to the srgb color space.
-    pub fn srgb(&mut self, alloc: &mut Ref) -> Ref {
-        *self.srgb.get_or_insert_with(|| alloc.bump())
-    }
-
-    /// Get a reference to the gray color space.
-    pub fn d65_gray(&mut self, alloc: &mut Ref) -> Ref {
-        *self.d65_gray.get_or_insert_with(|| alloc.bump())
-    }
-
-    /// Mark linear RGB as used.
-    pub fn linear_rgb(&mut self) {
-        self.use_linear_rgb = true;
-    }
-
-    /// Write the color space on usage.
-    pub fn write(
-        &mut self,
-        color_space: ColorSpace,
-        writer: writers::ColorSpace,
-        alloc: &mut Ref,
-    ) {
+    /// Mark a color space as used.
+    pub fn mark_as_used(&mut self, color_space: ColorSpace) {
         match color_space {
-            ColorSpace::Oklab | ColorSpace::Hsl | ColorSpace::Hsv => {
-                let mut oklab = writer.device_n([OKLAB_L, OKLAB_A, OKLAB_B]);
-                self.write(ColorSpace::LinearRgb, oklab.alternate_color_space(), alloc);
-                oklab.tint_ref(self.oklab(alloc));
-                oklab.attrs().subtype(DeviceNSubtype::DeviceN);
+            ColorSpace::Oklch | ColorSpace::Oklab | ColorSpace::Hsl | ColorSpace::Hsv => {
+                self.use_oklab = true;
+                self.use_linear_rgb = true;
+            }
+            ColorSpace::Srgb => {
+                self.use_srgb = true;
+            }
+            ColorSpace::D65Gray => {
+                self.use_d65_gray = true;
             }
-            ColorSpace::Oklch => self.write(ColorSpace::Oklab, writer, alloc),
-            ColorSpace::Srgb => writer.icc_based(self.srgb(alloc)),
-            ColorSpace::D65Gray => writer.icc_based(self.d65_gray(alloc)),
             ColorSpace::LinearRgb => {
-                writer.cal_rgb(
-                    [0.9505, 1.0, 1.0888],
-                    None,
-                    Some([1.0, 1.0, 1.0]),
-                    Some([
-                        0.4124, 0.2126, 0.0193, 0.3576, 0.715, 0.1192, 0.1805, 0.0722,
-                        0.9505,
-                    ]),
-                );
+                self.use_linear_rgb = true;
             }
-            ColorSpace::Cmyk => writer.device_cmyk(),
+            ColorSpace::Cmyk => {}
         }
     }
 
-    // Write the color spaces to the PDF file.
-    pub fn write_color_spaces(&mut self, mut spaces: Dict, alloc: &mut Ref) {
-        if self.oklab.is_some() {
-            self.write(ColorSpace::Oklab, spaces.insert(OKLAB).start(), alloc);
+    /// Write the color spaces to the PDF file.
+    pub fn write_color_spaces(&self, mut spaces: Dict, refs: &ColorFunctionRefs) {
+        if self.use_oklab {
+            write(ColorSpace::Oklab, spaces.insert(OKLAB).start(), refs);
         }
 
-        if self.srgb.is_some() {
-            self.write(ColorSpace::Srgb, spaces.insert(SRGB).start(), alloc);
+        if self.use_srgb {
+            write(ColorSpace::Srgb, spaces.insert(SRGB).start(), refs);
         }
 
-        if self.d65_gray.is_some() {
-            self.write(ColorSpace::D65Gray, spaces.insert(D65_GRAY).start(), alloc);
+        if self.use_d65_gray {
+            write(ColorSpace::D65Gray, spaces.insert(D65_GRAY).start(), refs);
         }
 
         if self.use_linear_rgb {
-            self.write(ColorSpace::LinearRgb, spaces.insert(LINEAR_SRGB).start(), alloc);
+            write(ColorSpace::LinearRgb, spaces.insert(LINEAR_SRGB).start(), refs);
         }
     }
 
     /// Write the necessary color spaces functions and ICC profiles to the
     /// PDF file.
-    pub fn write_functions(&self, chunk: &mut Chunk) {
+    pub fn write_functions(&self, chunk: &mut Chunk, refs: &ColorFunctionRefs) {
         // Write the Oklab function & color space.
-        if let Some(oklab) = self.oklab {
+        if self.use_oklab {
             chunk
-                .post_script_function(oklab, &OKLAB_DEFLATED)
+                .post_script_function(refs.oklab.unwrap(), &OKLAB_DEFLATED)
                 .domain([0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 1.0])
                 .range([0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 1.0])
                 .filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
         }
 
         // Write the sRGB color space.
-        if let Some(srgb) = self.srgb {
+        if self.use_srgb {
             chunk
-                .icc_profile(srgb, &SRGB_ICC_DEFLATED)
+                .icc_profile(refs.srgb.unwrap(), &SRGB_ICC_DEFLATED)
                 .n(3)
                 .range([0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 1.0])
                 .filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
         }
 
         // Write the gray color space.
-        if let Some(gray) = self.d65_gray {
+        if self.use_d65_gray {
             chunk
-                .icc_profile(gray, &GRAY_ICC_DEFLATED)
+                .icc_profile(refs.d65_gray.unwrap(), &GRAY_ICC_DEFLATED)
                 .n(1)
                 .range([0.0, 1.0])
                 .filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
         }
     }
+
+    /// Merge two color space usage information together: a given color space is
+    /// considered to be used if it is used on either side.
+    pub fn merge(&mut self, other: &Self) {
+        self.use_d65_gray |= other.use_d65_gray;
+        self.use_linear_rgb |= other.use_linear_rgb;
+        self.use_oklab |= other.use_oklab;
+        self.use_srgb |= other.use_srgb;
+    }
+}
+
+/// Write the color space.
+pub fn write(
+    color_space: ColorSpace,
+    writer: writers::ColorSpace,
+    refs: &ColorFunctionRefs,
+) {
+    match color_space {
+        ColorSpace::Oklab | ColorSpace::Hsl | ColorSpace::Hsv => {
+            let mut oklab = writer.device_n([OKLAB_L, OKLAB_A, OKLAB_B]);
+            write(ColorSpace::LinearRgb, oklab.alternate_color_space(), refs);
+            oklab.tint_ref(refs.oklab.unwrap());
+            oklab.attrs().subtype(DeviceNSubtype::DeviceN);
+        }
+        ColorSpace::Oklch => write(ColorSpace::Oklab, writer, refs),
+        ColorSpace::Srgb => writer.icc_based(refs.srgb.unwrap()),
+        ColorSpace::D65Gray => writer.icc_based(refs.d65_gray.unwrap()),
+        ColorSpace::LinearRgb => {
+            writer.cal_rgb(
+                [0.9505, 1.0, 1.0888],
+                None,
+                Some([1.0, 1.0, 1.0]),
+                Some([
+                    0.4124, 0.2126, 0.0193, 0.3576, 0.715, 0.1192, 0.1805, 0.0722, 0.9505,
+                ]),
+            );
+        }
+        ColorSpace::Cmyk => writer.device_cmyk(),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Global references for color conversion functions.
+///
+/// These functions are only written once (at most, they are not written if not
+/// needed) in the final document, and be shared by all color space
+/// dictionaries.
+pub struct ColorFunctionRefs {
+    oklab: Option<Ref>,
+    srgb: Option<Ref>,
+    d65_gray: Option<Ref>,
+}
+
+impl Renumber for ColorFunctionRefs {
+    fn renumber(&mut self, offset: i32) {
+        if let Some(r) = &mut self.oklab {
+            r.renumber(offset);
+        }
+        if let Some(r) = &mut self.srgb {
+            r.renumber(offset);
+        }
+        if let Some(r) = &mut self.d65_gray {
+            r.renumber(offset);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Allocate all necessary [`ColorFunctionRefs`].
+pub fn alloc_color_functions_refs(
+    context: &WithResources,
+) -> (PdfChunk, ColorFunctionRefs) {
+    let mut chunk = PdfChunk::new();
+    let mut used_color_spaces = ColorSpaces::default();
+
+    context.resources.traverse(&mut |r| {
+        used_color_spaces.merge(&r.colors);
+    });
+
+    let refs = ColorFunctionRefs {
+        oklab: if used_color_spaces.use_oklab { Some(chunk.alloc()) } else { None },
+        srgb: if used_color_spaces.use_srgb { Some(chunk.alloc()) } else { None },
+        d65_gray: if used_color_spaces.use_d65_gray { Some(chunk.alloc()) } else { None },
+    };
+
+    (chunk, refs)
 }
 
 /// This function removes comments, line spaces and carriage returns from a
@@ -202,14 +248,29 @@ impl ColorEncode for ColorSpace {
 /// Encodes a paint into either a fill or stroke color.
 pub(super) trait PaintEncode {
     /// Set the paint as the fill color.
-    fn set_as_fill(&self, ctx: &mut PageContext, on_text: bool, transforms: Transforms);
+    fn set_as_fill(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut content::Builder,
+        on_text: bool,
+        transforms: content::Transforms,
+    );
 
     /// Set the paint as the stroke color.
-    fn set_as_stroke(&self, ctx: &mut PageContext, on_text: bool, transforms: Transforms);
+    fn set_as_stroke(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut content::Builder,
+        on_text: bool,
+        transforms: content::Transforms,
+    );
 }
 
 impl PaintEncode for Paint {
-    fn set_as_fill(&self, ctx: &mut PageContext, on_text: bool, transforms: Transforms) {
+    fn set_as_fill(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut content::Builder,
+        on_text: bool,
+        transforms: content::Transforms,
+    ) {
         match self {
             Self::Solid(c) => c.set_as_fill(ctx, on_text, transforms),
             Self::Gradient(gradient) => gradient.set_as_fill(ctx, on_text, transforms),
@@ -219,9 +280,9 @@ impl PaintEncode for Paint {
 
     fn set_as_stroke(
         &self,
-        ctx: &mut PageContext,
+        ctx: &mut content::Builder,
         on_text: bool,
-        transforms: Transforms,
+        transforms: content::Transforms,
     ) {
         match self {
             Self::Solid(c) => c.set_as_stroke(ctx, on_text, transforms),
@@ -232,10 +293,10 @@ impl PaintEncode for Paint {
 }
 
 impl PaintEncode for Color {
-    fn set_as_fill(&self, ctx: &mut PageContext, _: bool, _: Transforms) {
+    fn set_as_fill(&self, ctx: &mut content::Builder, _: bool, _: content::Transforms) {
         match self {
             Color::Luma(_) => {
-                ctx.parent.colors.d65_gray(&mut ctx.parent.alloc);
+                ctx.resources.colors.mark_as_used(ColorSpace::D65Gray);
                 ctx.set_fill_color_space(D65_GRAY);
 
                 let [l, _, _, _] = ColorSpace::D65Gray.encode(*self);
@@ -243,21 +304,21 @@ impl PaintEncode for Color {
             }
             // Oklch is converted to Oklab.
             Color::Oklab(_) | Color::Oklch(_) | Color::Hsl(_) | Color::Hsv(_) => {
-                ctx.parent.colors.oklab(&mut ctx.parent.alloc);
+                ctx.resources.colors.mark_as_used(ColorSpace::Oklab);
                 ctx.set_fill_color_space(OKLAB);
 
                 let [l, a, b, _] = ColorSpace::Oklab.encode(*self);
                 ctx.content.set_fill_color([l, a, b]);
             }
             Color::LinearRgb(_) => {
-                ctx.parent.colors.linear_rgb();
+                ctx.resources.colors.mark_as_used(ColorSpace::LinearRgb);
                 ctx.set_fill_color_space(LINEAR_SRGB);
 
                 let [r, g, b, _] = ColorSpace::LinearRgb.encode(*self);
                 ctx.content.set_fill_color([r, g, b]);
             }
             Color::Rgb(_) => {
-                ctx.parent.colors.srgb(&mut ctx.parent.alloc);
+                ctx.resources.colors.mark_as_used(ColorSpace::Srgb);
                 ctx.set_fill_color_space(SRGB);
 
                 let [r, g, b, _] = ColorSpace::Srgb.encode(*self);
@@ -272,10 +333,10 @@ impl PaintEncode for Color {
         }
     }
 
-    fn set_as_stroke(&self, ctx: &mut PageContext, _: bool, _: Transforms) {
+    fn set_as_stroke(&self, ctx: &mut content::Builder, _: bool, _: content::Transforms) {
         match self {
             Color::Luma(_) => {
-                ctx.parent.colors.d65_gray(&mut ctx.parent.alloc);
+                ctx.resources.colors.mark_as_used(ColorSpace::D65Gray);
                 ctx.set_stroke_color_space(D65_GRAY);
 
                 let [l, _, _, _] = ColorSpace::D65Gray.encode(*self);
@@ -283,21 +344,21 @@ impl PaintEncode for Color {
             }
             // Oklch is converted to Oklab.
             Color::Oklab(_) | Color::Oklch(_) | Color::Hsl(_) | Color::Hsv(_) => {
-                ctx.parent.colors.oklab(&mut ctx.parent.alloc);
+                ctx.resources.colors.mark_as_used(ColorSpace::Oklab);
                 ctx.set_stroke_color_space(OKLAB);
 
                 let [l, a, b, _] = ColorSpace::Oklab.encode(*self);
                 ctx.content.set_stroke_color([l, a, b]);
             }
             Color::LinearRgb(_) => {
-                ctx.parent.colors.linear_rgb();
+                ctx.resources.colors.mark_as_used(ColorSpace::LinearRgb);
                 ctx.set_stroke_color_space(LINEAR_SRGB);
 
                 let [r, g, b, _] = ColorSpace::LinearRgb.encode(*self);
                 ctx.content.set_stroke_color([r, g, b]);
             }
             Color::Rgb(_) => {
-                ctx.parent.colors.srgb(&mut ctx.parent.alloc);
+                ctx.resources.colors.mark_as_used(ColorSpace::Srgb);
                 ctx.set_stroke_color_space(SRGB);
 
                 let [r, g, b, _] = ColorSpace::Srgb.encode(*self);
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/color_font.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/color_font.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..641fe156
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/color_font.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,312 @@
+//! OpenType fonts generally define monochrome glyphs, but they can also define
+//! glyphs with colors. This is how emojis are generally implemented for
+//! example.
+//!
+//! There are various standards to represent color glyphs, but PDF readers don't
+//! support any of them natively, so Typst has to handle them manually.
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use ecow::eco_format;
+use indexmap::IndexMap;
+use pdf_writer::Filter;
+use pdf_writer::{types::UnicodeCmap, Finish, Name, Rect, Ref};
+use ttf_parser::name_id;
+
+use typst::layout::Em;
+use typst::text::{color::frame_for_glyph, Font};
+
+use crate::resources::{Resources, ResourcesRefs};
+use crate::WithGlobalRefs;
+use crate::{
+    content,
+    font::{subset_tag, write_font_descriptor, CMAP_NAME, SYSTEM_INFO},
+    EmExt, PdfChunk,
+};
+
+/// Write color fonts in the PDF document.
+///
+/// They are written as Type3 fonts, which map glyph IDs to arbitrary PDF
+/// instructions.
+pub fn write_color_fonts(
+    context: &WithGlobalRefs,
+) -> (PdfChunk, HashMap<ColorFontSlice, Ref>) {
+    let mut out = HashMap::new();
+    let mut chunk = PdfChunk::new();
+    context.resources.traverse(&mut |resources: &Resources| {
+        let Some(color_fonts) = &resources.color_fonts else {
+            return;
+        };
+
+        for (color_font, font_slice) in color_fonts.iter() {
+            if out.contains_key(&font_slice) {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // Allocate some IDs.
+            let subfont_id = chunk.alloc();
+            let cmap_ref = chunk.alloc();
+            let descriptor_ref = chunk.alloc();
+            let widths_ref = chunk.alloc();
+
+            // And a map between glyph IDs and the instructions to draw this
+            // glyph.
+            let mut glyphs_to_instructions = Vec::new();
+
+            let start = font_slice.subfont * 256;
+            let end = (start + 256).min(color_font.glyphs.len());
+            let glyph_count = end - start;
+            let subset = &color_font.glyphs[start..end];
+            let mut widths = Vec::new();
+            let mut gids = Vec::new();
+
+            let scale_factor = font_slice.font.ttf().units_per_em() as f32;
+
+            // Write the instructions for each glyph.
+            for color_glyph in subset {
+                let instructions_stream_ref = chunk.alloc();
+                let width = font_slice
+                    .font
+                    .advance(color_glyph.gid)
+                    .unwrap_or(Em::new(0.0))
+                    .to_font_units();
+                widths.push(width);
+                chunk
+                    .stream(
+                        instructions_stream_ref,
+                        color_glyph.instructions.content.wait(),
+                    )
+                    .filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
+
+                // Use this stream as instructions to draw the glyph.
+                glyphs_to_instructions.push(instructions_stream_ref);
+                gids.push(color_glyph.gid);
+            }
+
+            // Write the Type3 font object.
+            let mut pdf_font = chunk.type3_font(subfont_id);
+            pdf_font.pair(Name(b"Resources"), color_fonts.resources.reference);
+            pdf_font.bbox(color_font.bbox);
+            pdf_font.matrix([1.0 / scale_factor, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0 / scale_factor, 0.0, 0.0]);
+            pdf_font.first_char(0);
+            pdf_font.last_char((glyph_count - 1) as u8);
+            pdf_font.pair(Name(b"Widths"), widths_ref);
+            pdf_font.to_unicode(cmap_ref);
+            pdf_font.font_descriptor(descriptor_ref);
+
+            // Write the /CharProcs dictionary, that maps glyph names to
+            // drawing instructions.
+            let mut char_procs = pdf_font.char_procs();
+            for (gid, instructions_ref) in glyphs_to_instructions.iter().enumerate() {
+                char_procs
+                    .pair(Name(eco_format!("glyph{gid}").as_bytes()), *instructions_ref);
+            }
+            char_procs.finish();
+
+            // Write the /Encoding dictionary.
+            let names = (0..glyph_count)
+                .map(|gid| eco_format!("glyph{gid}"))
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+            pdf_font
+                .encoding_custom()
+                .differences()
+                .consecutive(0, names.iter().map(|name| Name(name.as_bytes())));
+            pdf_font.finish();
+
+            // Encode a CMAP to make it possible to search or copy glyphs.
+            let glyph_set = resources.glyph_sets.get(&font_slice.font).unwrap();
+            let mut cmap = UnicodeCmap::new(CMAP_NAME, SYSTEM_INFO);
+            for (index, glyph) in subset.iter().enumerate() {
+                let Some(text) = glyph_set.get(&glyph.gid) else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+
+                if !text.is_empty() {
+                    cmap.pair_with_multiple(index as u8, text.chars());
+                }
+            }
+            chunk.cmap(cmap_ref, &cmap.finish());
+
+            // Write the font descriptor.
+            gids.sort();
+            let subset_tag = subset_tag(&gids);
+            let postscript_name = font_slice
+                .font
+                .find_name(name_id::POST_SCRIPT_NAME)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| "unknown".to_string());
+            let base_font = eco_format!("{subset_tag}+{postscript_name}");
+            write_font_descriptor(
+                &mut chunk,
+                descriptor_ref,
+                &font_slice.font,
+                &base_font,
+            );
+
+            // Write the widths array
+            chunk.indirect(widths_ref).array().items(widths);
+
+            out.insert(font_slice, subfont_id);
+        }
+    });
+
+    (chunk, out)
+}
+
+/// A mapping between `Font`s and all the corresponding `ColorFont`s.
+///
+/// This mapping is one-to-many because there can only be 256 glyphs in a Type 3
+/// font, and fonts generally have more color glyphs than that.
+pub struct ColorFontMap<R> {
+    /// The mapping itself.
+    map: IndexMap<Font, ColorFont>,
+    /// The resources required to render the fonts in this map.
+    ///
+    /// For example, this can be the images for glyphs based on bitmaps or SVG.
+    pub resources: Resources<R>,
+    /// The number of font slices (groups of 256 color glyphs), across all color
+    /// fonts.
+    total_slice_count: usize,
+}
+
+/// A collection of Type3 font, belonging to the same TTF font.
+pub struct ColorFont {
+    /// The IDs of each sub-slice of this font. They are the numbers after "Cf"
+    /// in the Resources dictionaries.
+    slice_ids: Vec<usize>,
+    /// The list of all color glyphs in this family.
+    ///
+    /// The index in this vector modulo 256 corresponds to the index in one of
+    /// the Type3 fonts in `refs` (the `n`-th in the vector, where `n` is the
+    /// quotient of the index divided by 256).
+    pub glyphs: Vec<ColorGlyph>,
+    /// The global bounding box of the font.
+    pub bbox: Rect,
+    /// A mapping between glyph IDs and character indices in the `glyphs`
+    /// vector.
+    glyph_indices: HashMap<u16, usize>,
+}
+
+/// A single color glyph.
+pub struct ColorGlyph {
+    /// The ID of the glyph.
+    pub gid: u16,
+    /// Instructions to draw the glyph.
+    pub instructions: content::Encoded,
+}
+
+impl ColorFontMap<()> {
+    /// Creates a new empty mapping
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            map: IndexMap::new(),
+            total_slice_count: 0,
+            resources: Resources::default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// For a given glyph in a TTF font, give the ID of the Type3 font and the
+    /// index of the glyph inside of this Type3 font.
+    ///
+    /// If this is the first occurrence of this glyph in this font, it will
+    /// start its encoding and add it to the list of known glyphs.
+    pub fn get(&mut self, font: &Font, gid: u16) -> (usize, u8) {
+        let color_font = self.map.entry(font.clone()).or_insert_with(|| {
+            let global_bbox = font.ttf().global_bounding_box();
+            let bbox = Rect::new(
+                font.to_em(global_bbox.x_min).to_font_units(),
+                font.to_em(global_bbox.y_min).to_font_units(),
+                font.to_em(global_bbox.x_max).to_font_units(),
+                font.to_em(global_bbox.y_max).to_font_units(),
+            );
+            ColorFont {
+                bbox,
+                slice_ids: Vec::new(),
+                glyphs: Vec::new(),
+                glyph_indices: HashMap::new(),
+            }
+        });
+
+        if let Some(index_of_glyph) = color_font.glyph_indices.get(&gid) {
+            // If we already know this glyph, return it.
+            (color_font.slice_ids[index_of_glyph / 256], *index_of_glyph as u8)
+        } else {
+            // Otherwise, allocate a new ColorGlyph in the font, and a new Type3 font
+            // if needed
+            let index = color_font.glyphs.len();
+            if index % 256 == 0 {
+                color_font.slice_ids.push(self.total_slice_count);
+                self.total_slice_count += 1;
+            }
+
+            let frame = frame_for_glyph(font, gid);
+            let width = font.advance(gid).unwrap_or(Em::new(0.0)).to_font_units();
+            let instructions = content::build(&mut self.resources, &frame, Some(width));
+            color_font.glyphs.push(ColorGlyph { gid, instructions });
+            color_font.glyph_indices.insert(gid, index);
+
+            (color_font.slice_ids[index / 256], index as u8)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Assign references to the resource dictionary used by this set of color
+    /// fonts.
+    pub fn with_refs(self, refs: &ResourcesRefs) -> ColorFontMap<Ref> {
+        ColorFontMap {
+            map: self.map,
+            resources: self.resources.with_refs(refs),
+            total_slice_count: self.total_slice_count,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<R> ColorFontMap<R> {
+    /// Iterate over all Type3 fonts.
+    ///
+    /// Each item of this iterator maps to a Type3 font: it contains
+    /// at most 256 glyphs. A same TTF font can yield multiple Type3 fonts.
+    pub fn iter(&self) -> ColorFontMapIter<'_, R> {
+        ColorFontMapIter { map: self, font_index: 0, slice_index: 0 }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Iterator over a [`ColorFontMap`].
+///
+/// See [`ColorFontMap::iter`].
+pub struct ColorFontMapIter<'a, R> {
+    /// The map over which to iterate
+    map: &'a ColorFontMap<R>,
+    /// The index of TTF font on which we currently iterate
+    font_index: usize,
+    /// The sub-font (slice of at most 256 glyphs) at which we currently are.
+    slice_index: usize,
+}
+
+impl<'a, R> Iterator for ColorFontMapIter<'a, R> {
+    type Item = (&'a ColorFont, ColorFontSlice);
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        let (font, color_font) = self.map.map.get_index(self.font_index)?;
+        let slice_count = (color_font.glyphs.len() / 256) + 1;
+
+        if self.slice_index >= slice_count {
+            self.font_index += 1;
+            self.slice_index = 0;
+            return self.next();
+        }
+
+        let slice = ColorFontSlice { font: font.clone(), subfont: self.slice_index };
+        self.slice_index += 1;
+        Some((color_font, slice))
+    }
+}
+
+/// A set of at most 256 glyphs (a limit imposed on Type3 fonts by the PDF
+/// specification) that represents a part of a TTF font.
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ColorFontSlice {
+    /// The original TTF font.
+    pub font: Font,
+    /// The index of the Type3 font, among all those that are necessary to
+    /// represent the subset of the TTF font we are interested in.
+    pub subfont: usize,
+}
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/content.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/content.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..c5327c18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/content.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,712 @@
+//! Generic writer for PDF content.
+//!
+//! It is used to write page contents, color glyph instructions, and patterns.
+//!
+//! See also [`pdf_writer::Content`].
+
+use ecow::eco_format;
+use pdf_writer::{
+    types::{ColorSpaceOperand, LineCapStyle, LineJoinStyle, TextRenderingMode},
+    Content, Finish, Name, Rect, Str,
+};
+use typst::layout::{
+    Abs, Em, Frame, FrameItem, GroupItem, Point, Ratio, Size, Transform,
+};
+use typst::model::Destination;
+use typst::text::{color::is_color_glyph, Font, TextItem, TextItemView};
+use typst::utils::{Deferred, Numeric, SliceExt};
+use typst::visualize::{
+    FixedStroke, Geometry, Image, LineCap, LineJoin, Paint, Path, PathItem, Shape,
+};
+
+use crate::color_font::ColorFontMap;
+use crate::extg::ExtGState;
+use crate::image::deferred_image;
+use crate::{color::PaintEncode, resources::Resources};
+use crate::{deflate_deferred, AbsExt, EmExt};
+
+/// Encode a [`Frame`] into a content stream.
+///
+/// The resources that were used in the stream will be added to `resources`.
+///
+/// `color_glyph_width` should be `None` unless the `Frame` represents a [color
+/// glyph].
+///
+/// [color glyph]: `crate::color_font`
+pub fn build(
+    resources: &mut Resources<()>,
+    frame: &Frame,
+    color_glyph_width: Option<f32>,
+) -> Encoded {
+    let size = frame.size();
+    let mut ctx = Builder::new(resources, size);
+
+    if let Some(width) = color_glyph_width {
+        ctx.content.start_color_glyph(width);
+    }
+
+    // Make the coordinate system start at the top-left.
+    ctx.transform(
+        // Make the Y axis go upwards
+        Transform::scale(Ratio::one(), -Ratio::one())
+            // Also move the origin to the top left corner
+            .post_concat(Transform::translate(Abs::zero(), size.y)),
+    );
+
+    // Encode the frame into the content stream.
+    write_frame(&mut ctx, frame);
+
+    Encoded {
+        size,
+        content: deflate_deferred(ctx.content.finish()),
+        uses_opacities: ctx.uses_opacities,
+        links: ctx.links,
+    }
+}
+
+/// An encoded content stream.
+pub struct Encoded {
+    /// The dimensions of the content.
+    pub size: Size,
+    /// The actual content stream.
+    pub content: Deferred<Vec<u8>>,
+    /// Whether the content opacities.
+    pub uses_opacities: bool,
+    /// Links in the PDF coordinate system.
+    pub links: Vec<(Destination, Rect)>,
+}
+
+/// An exporter for a single PDF content stream.
+///
+/// Content streams are a series of PDF commands. They can reference external
+/// objects only through resources.
+///
+/// Content streams can be used for page contents, but also to describe color
+/// glyphs and patterns.
+pub struct Builder<'a, R = ()> {
+    /// A list of all resources that are used in the content stream.
+    pub(crate) resources: &'a mut Resources<R>,
+    /// The PDF content stream that is being built.
+    pub content: Content,
+    /// Current graphic state.
+    state: State,
+    /// Stack of saved graphic states.
+    saves: Vec<State>,
+    /// Wheter any stroke or fill was not totally opaque.
+    uses_opacities: bool,
+    /// All clickable links that are present in this content.
+    links: Vec<(Destination, Rect)>,
+}
+
+impl<'a, R> Builder<'a, R> {
+    /// Create a new content builder.
+    pub fn new(resources: &'a mut Resources<R>, size: Size) -> Self {
+        Builder {
+            resources,
+            uses_opacities: false,
+            content: Content::new(),
+            state: State::new(size),
+            saves: vec![],
+            links: vec![],
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A simulated graphics state used to deduplicate graphics state changes and
+/// keep track of the current transformation matrix for link annotations.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct State {
+    /// The transform of the current item.
+    transform: Transform,
+    /// The transform of first hard frame in the hierarchy.
+    container_transform: Transform,
+    /// The size of the first hard frame in the hierarchy.
+    size: Size,
+    /// The current font.
+    font: Option<(Font, Abs)>,
+    /// The current fill paint.
+    fill: Option<Paint>,
+    /// The color space of the current fill paint.
+    fill_space: Option<Name<'static>>,
+    /// The current external graphic state.
+    external_graphics_state: Option<ExtGState>,
+    /// The current stroke paint.
+    stroke: Option<FixedStroke>,
+    /// The color space of the current stroke paint.
+    stroke_space: Option<Name<'static>>,
+    /// The current text rendering mode.
+    text_rendering_mode: TextRenderingMode,
+}
+
+impl State {
+    /// Creates a new, clean state for a given `size`.
+    pub fn new(size: Size) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            transform: Transform::identity(),
+            container_transform: Transform::identity(),
+            size,
+            font: None,
+            fill: None,
+            fill_space: None,
+            external_graphics_state: None,
+            stroke: None,
+            stroke_space: None,
+            text_rendering_mode: TextRenderingMode::Fill,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates the [`Transforms`] structure for the current item.
+    pub fn transforms(&self, size: Size, pos: Point) -> Transforms {
+        Transforms {
+            transform: self.transform.pre_concat(Transform::translate(pos.x, pos.y)),
+            container_transform: self.container_transform,
+            container_size: self.size,
+            size,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Subset of the state used to calculate the transform of gradients and patterns.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub(super) struct Transforms {
+    /// The transform of the current item.
+    pub transform: Transform,
+    /// The transform of first hard frame in the hierarchy.
+    pub container_transform: Transform,
+    /// The size of the first hard frame in the hierarchy.
+    pub container_size: Size,
+    /// The size of the item.
+    pub size: Size,
+}
+
+impl Builder<'_, ()> {
+    fn save_state(&mut self) {
+        self.saves.push(self.state.clone());
+        self.content.save_state();
+    }
+
+    fn restore_state(&mut self) {
+        self.content.restore_state();
+        self.state = self.saves.pop().expect("missing state save");
+    }
+
+    fn set_external_graphics_state(&mut self, graphics_state: &ExtGState) {
+        let current_state = self.state.external_graphics_state.as_ref();
+        if current_state != Some(graphics_state) {
+            let index = self.resources.ext_gs.insert(*graphics_state);
+            let name = eco_format!("Gs{index}");
+            self.content.set_parameters(Name(name.as_bytes()));
+
+            if graphics_state.uses_opacities() {
+                self.uses_opacities = true;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn set_opacities(&mut self, stroke: Option<&FixedStroke>, fill: Option<&Paint>) {
+        let stroke_opacity = stroke
+            .map(|stroke| {
+                let color = match &stroke.paint {
+                    Paint::Solid(color) => *color,
+                    Paint::Gradient(_) | Paint::Pattern(_) => return 255,
+                };
+
+                color.alpha().map_or(255, |v| (v * 255.0).round() as u8)
+            })
+            .unwrap_or(255);
+        let fill_opacity = fill
+            .map(|paint| {
+                let color = match paint {
+                    Paint::Solid(color) => *color,
+                    Paint::Gradient(_) | Paint::Pattern(_) => return 255,
+                };
+
+                color.alpha().map_or(255, |v| (v * 255.0).round() as u8)
+            })
+            .unwrap_or(255);
+        self.set_external_graphics_state(&ExtGState { stroke_opacity, fill_opacity });
+    }
+
+    pub fn transform(&mut self, transform: Transform) {
+        let Transform { sx, ky, kx, sy, tx, ty } = transform;
+        self.state.transform = self.state.transform.pre_concat(transform);
+        if self.state.container_transform.is_identity() {
+            self.state.container_transform = self.state.transform;
+        }
+        self.content.transform([
+            sx.get() as _,
+            ky.get() as _,
+            kx.get() as _,
+            sy.get() as _,
+            tx.to_f32(),
+            ty.to_f32(),
+        ]);
+    }
+
+    fn group_transform(&mut self, transform: Transform) {
+        self.state.container_transform =
+            self.state.container_transform.pre_concat(transform);
+    }
+
+    fn set_font(&mut self, font: &Font, size: Abs) {
+        if self.state.font.as_ref().map(|(f, s)| (f, *s)) != Some((font, size)) {
+            let index = self.resources.fonts.insert(font.clone());
+            let name = eco_format!("F{index}");
+            self.content.set_font(Name(name.as_bytes()), size.to_f32());
+            self.state.font = Some((font.clone(), size));
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn size(&mut self, size: Size) {
+        self.state.size = size;
+    }
+
+    fn set_fill(&mut self, fill: &Paint, on_text: bool, transforms: Transforms) {
+        if self.state.fill.as_ref() != Some(fill)
+            || matches!(self.state.fill, Some(Paint::Gradient(_)))
+        {
+            fill.set_as_fill(self, on_text, transforms);
+            self.state.fill = Some(fill.clone());
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_fill_color_space(&mut self, space: Name<'static>) {
+        if self.state.fill_space != Some(space) {
+            self.content.set_fill_color_space(ColorSpaceOperand::Named(space));
+            self.state.fill_space = Some(space);
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn reset_fill_color_space(&mut self) {
+        self.state.fill_space = None;
+    }
+
+    fn set_stroke(
+        &mut self,
+        stroke: &FixedStroke,
+        on_text: bool,
+        transforms: Transforms,
+    ) {
+        if self.state.stroke.as_ref() != Some(stroke)
+            || matches!(
+                self.state.stroke.as_ref().map(|s| &s.paint),
+                Some(Paint::Gradient(_))
+            )
+        {
+            let FixedStroke { paint, thickness, cap, join, dash, miter_limit } = stroke;
+            paint.set_as_stroke(self, on_text, transforms);
+
+            self.content.set_line_width(thickness.to_f32());
+            if self.state.stroke.as_ref().map(|s| &s.cap) != Some(cap) {
+                self.content.set_line_cap(to_pdf_line_cap(*cap));
+            }
+            if self.state.stroke.as_ref().map(|s| &s.join) != Some(join) {
+                self.content.set_line_join(to_pdf_line_join(*join));
+            }
+            if self.state.stroke.as_ref().map(|s| &s.dash) != Some(dash) {
+                if let Some(pattern) = dash {
+                    self.content.set_dash_pattern(
+                        pattern.array.iter().map(|l| l.to_f32()),
+                        pattern.phase.to_f32(),
+                    );
+                } else {
+                    self.content.set_dash_pattern([], 0.0);
+                }
+            }
+            if self.state.stroke.as_ref().map(|s| &s.miter_limit) != Some(miter_limit) {
+                self.content.set_miter_limit(miter_limit.get() as f32);
+            }
+            self.state.stroke = Some(stroke.clone());
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_stroke_color_space(&mut self, space: Name<'static>) {
+        if self.state.stroke_space != Some(space) {
+            self.content.set_stroke_color_space(ColorSpaceOperand::Named(space));
+            self.state.stroke_space = Some(space);
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn reset_stroke_color_space(&mut self) {
+        self.state.stroke_space = None;
+    }
+
+    fn set_text_rendering_mode(&mut self, mode: TextRenderingMode) {
+        if self.state.text_rendering_mode != mode {
+            self.content.set_text_rendering_mode(mode);
+            self.state.text_rendering_mode = mode;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Encode a frame into the content stream.
+pub(crate) fn write_frame(ctx: &mut Builder, frame: &Frame) {
+    for &(pos, ref item) in frame.items() {
+        let x = pos.x.to_f32();
+        let y = pos.y.to_f32();
+        match item {
+            FrameItem::Group(group) => write_group(ctx, pos, group),
+            FrameItem::Text(text) => write_text(ctx, pos, text),
+            FrameItem::Shape(shape, _) => write_shape(ctx, pos, shape),
+            FrameItem::Image(image, size, _) => write_image(ctx, x, y, image, *size),
+            FrameItem::Link(dest, size) => write_link(ctx, pos, dest, *size),
+            FrameItem::Tag(_) => {}
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Encode a group into the content stream.
+fn write_group(ctx: &mut Builder, pos: Point, group: &GroupItem) {
+    let translation = Transform::translate(pos.x, pos.y);
+
+    ctx.save_state();
+
+    if group.frame.kind().is_hard() {
+        ctx.group_transform(
+            ctx.state
+                .transform
+                .post_concat(ctx.state.container_transform.invert().unwrap())
+                .pre_concat(translation)
+                .pre_concat(group.transform),
+        );
+        ctx.size(group.frame.size());
+    }
+
+    ctx.transform(translation.pre_concat(group.transform));
+    if let Some(clip_path) = &group.clip_path {
+        write_path(ctx, 0.0, 0.0, clip_path);
+        ctx.content.clip_nonzero();
+        ctx.content.end_path();
+    }
+
+    write_frame(ctx, &group.frame);
+    ctx.restore_state();
+}
+
+/// Encode a text run into the content stream.
+fn write_text(ctx: &mut Builder, pos: Point, text: &TextItem) {
+    let ttf = text.font.ttf();
+    let tables = ttf.tables();
+
+    // If the text run contains either only color glyphs (used for emojis for
+    // example) or normal text we can render it directly
+    let has_color_glyphs = tables.sbix.is_some()
+        || tables.cbdt.is_some()
+        || tables.svg.is_some()
+        || tables.colr.is_some();
+    if !has_color_glyphs {
+        write_normal_text(ctx, pos, TextItemView::all_of(text));
+        return;
+    }
+
+    let color_glyph_count =
+        text.glyphs.iter().filter(|g| is_color_glyph(&text.font, g)).count();
+
+    if color_glyph_count == text.glyphs.len() {
+        write_color_glyphs(ctx, pos, TextItemView::all_of(text));
+    } else if color_glyph_count == 0 {
+        write_normal_text(ctx, pos, TextItemView::all_of(text));
+    } else {
+        // Otherwise we need to split it in smaller text runs
+        let mut offset = 0;
+        let mut position_in_run = Abs::zero();
+        for (color, sub_run) in
+            text.glyphs.group_by_key(|g| is_color_glyph(&text.font, g))
+        {
+            let end = offset + sub_run.len();
+
+            // Build a sub text-run
+            let text_item_view = TextItemView::from_glyph_range(text, offset..end);
+
+            // Adjust the position of the run on the line
+            let pos = pos + Point::new(position_in_run, Abs::zero());
+            position_in_run += text_item_view.width();
+            offset = end;
+            // Actually write the sub text-run
+            if color {
+                write_color_glyphs(ctx, pos, text_item_view);
+            } else {
+                write_normal_text(ctx, pos, text_item_view);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Encodes a text run (without any color glyph) into the content stream.
+fn write_normal_text(ctx: &mut Builder, pos: Point, text: TextItemView) {
+    let x = pos.x.to_f32();
+    let y = pos.y.to_f32();
+
+    *ctx.resources.languages.entry(text.item.lang).or_insert(0) += text.glyph_range.len();
+
+    let glyph_set = ctx.resources.glyph_sets.entry(text.item.font.clone()).or_default();
+    for g in text.glyphs() {
+        let t = text.text();
+        let segment = &t[g.range()];
+        glyph_set.entry(g.id).or_insert_with(|| segment.into());
+    }
+
+    let fill_transform = ctx.state.transforms(Size::zero(), pos);
+    ctx.set_fill(&text.item.fill, true, fill_transform);
+
+    let stroke = text.item.stroke.as_ref().and_then(|stroke| {
+        if stroke.thickness.to_f32() > 0.0 {
+            Some(stroke)
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    });
+
+    if let Some(stroke) = stroke {
+        ctx.set_stroke(stroke, true, fill_transform);
+        ctx.set_text_rendering_mode(TextRenderingMode::FillStroke);
+    } else {
+        ctx.set_text_rendering_mode(TextRenderingMode::Fill);
+    }
+
+    ctx.set_font(&text.item.font, text.item.size);
+    ctx.set_opacities(text.item.stroke.as_ref(), Some(&text.item.fill));
+    ctx.content.begin_text();
+
+    // Position the text.
+    ctx.content.set_text_matrix([1.0, 0.0, 0.0, -1.0, x, y]);
+
+    let mut positioned = ctx.content.show_positioned();
+    let mut items = positioned.items();
+    let mut adjustment = Em::zero();
+    let mut encoded = vec![];
+
+    // Write the glyphs with kerning adjustments.
+    for glyph in text.glyphs() {
+        adjustment += glyph.x_offset;
+
+        if !adjustment.is_zero() {
+            if !encoded.is_empty() {
+                items.show(Str(&encoded));
+                encoded.clear();
+            }
+
+            items.adjust(-adjustment.to_font_units());
+            adjustment = Em::zero();
+        }
+
+        let cid = crate::font::glyph_cid(&text.item.font, glyph.id);
+        encoded.push((cid >> 8) as u8);
+        encoded.push((cid & 0xff) as u8);
+
+        if let Some(advance) = text.item.font.advance(glyph.id) {
+            adjustment += glyph.x_advance - advance;
+        }
+
+        adjustment -= glyph.x_offset;
+    }
+
+    if !encoded.is_empty() {
+        items.show(Str(&encoded));
+    }
+
+    items.finish();
+    positioned.finish();
+    ctx.content.end_text();
+}
+
+/// Encodes a text run made only of color glyphs into the content stream
+fn write_color_glyphs(ctx: &mut Builder, pos: Point, text: TextItemView) {
+    let x = pos.x.to_f32();
+    let y = pos.y.to_f32();
+
+    let mut last_font = None;
+
+    ctx.content.begin_text();
+    ctx.content.set_text_matrix([1.0, 0.0, 0.0, -1.0, x, y]);
+    // So that the next call to ctx.set_font() will change the font to one that
+    // displays regular glyphs and not color glyphs.
+    ctx.state.font = None;
+
+    let glyph_set = ctx.resources.glyph_sets.entry(text.item.font.clone()).or_default();
+
+    for glyph in text.glyphs() {
+        // Retrieve the Type3 font reference and the glyph index in the font.
+        let color_fonts = ctx
+            .resources
+            .color_fonts
+            .get_or_insert_with(|| Box::new(ColorFontMap::new()));
+        let (font, index) = color_fonts.get(&text.item.font, glyph.id);
+
+        if last_font != Some(font) {
+            ctx.content.set_font(
+                Name(eco_format!("Cf{}", font).as_bytes()),
+                text.item.size.to_f32(),
+            );
+            last_font = Some(font);
+        }
+
+        ctx.content.show(Str(&[index]));
+
+        glyph_set
+            .entry(glyph.id)
+            .or_insert_with(|| text.text()[glyph.range()].into());
+    }
+    ctx.content.end_text();
+}
+
+/// Encode a geometrical shape into the content stream.
+fn write_shape(ctx: &mut Builder, pos: Point, shape: &Shape) {
+    let x = pos.x.to_f32();
+    let y = pos.y.to_f32();
+
+    let stroke = shape.stroke.as_ref().and_then(|stroke| {
+        if stroke.thickness.to_f32() > 0.0 {
+            Some(stroke)
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    });
+
+    if shape.fill.is_none() && stroke.is_none() {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    if let Some(fill) = &shape.fill {
+        ctx.set_fill(fill, false, ctx.state.transforms(shape.geometry.bbox_size(), pos));
+    }
+
+    if let Some(stroke) = stroke {
+        ctx.set_stroke(
+            stroke,
+            false,
+            ctx.state.transforms(shape.geometry.bbox_size(), pos),
+        );
+    }
+
+    ctx.set_opacities(stroke, shape.fill.as_ref());
+
+    match shape.geometry {
+        Geometry::Line(target) => {
+            let dx = target.x.to_f32();
+            let dy = target.y.to_f32();
+            ctx.content.move_to(x, y);
+            ctx.content.line_to(x + dx, y + dy);
+        }
+        Geometry::Rect(size) => {
+            let w = size.x.to_f32();
+            let h = size.y.to_f32();
+            if w.abs() > f32::EPSILON && h.abs() > f32::EPSILON {
+                ctx.content.rect(x, y, w, h);
+            }
+        }
+        Geometry::Path(ref path) => {
+            write_path(ctx, x, y, path);
+        }
+    }
+
+    match (&shape.fill, stroke) {
+        (None, None) => unreachable!(),
+        (Some(_), None) => ctx.content.fill_nonzero(),
+        (None, Some(_)) => ctx.content.stroke(),
+        (Some(_), Some(_)) => ctx.content.fill_nonzero_and_stroke(),
+    };
+}
+
+/// Encode a bezier path into the content stream.
+fn write_path(ctx: &mut Builder, x: f32, y: f32, path: &Path) {
+    for elem in &path.0 {
+        match elem {
+            PathItem::MoveTo(p) => {
+                ctx.content.move_to(x + p.x.to_f32(), y + p.y.to_f32())
+            }
+            PathItem::LineTo(p) => {
+                ctx.content.line_to(x + p.x.to_f32(), y + p.y.to_f32())
+            }
+            PathItem::CubicTo(p1, p2, p3) => ctx.content.cubic_to(
+                x + p1.x.to_f32(),
+                y + p1.y.to_f32(),
+                x + p2.x.to_f32(),
+                y + p2.y.to_f32(),
+                x + p3.x.to_f32(),
+                y + p3.y.to_f32(),
+            ),
+            PathItem::ClosePath => ctx.content.close_path(),
+        };
+    }
+}
+
+/// Encode a vector or raster image into the content stream.
+fn write_image(ctx: &mut Builder, x: f32, y: f32, image: &Image, size: Size) {
+    let index = ctx.resources.images.insert(image.clone());
+    ctx.resources.deferred_images.entry(index).or_insert_with(|| {
+        let (image, color_space) = deferred_image(image.clone());
+        if let Some(color_space) = color_space {
+            ctx.resources.colors.mark_as_used(color_space);
+        }
+        image
+    });
+
+    let name = eco_format!("Im{index}");
+    let w = size.x.to_f32();
+    let h = size.y.to_f32();
+    ctx.content.save_state();
+    ctx.content.transform([w, 0.0, 0.0, -h, x, y + h]);
+
+    if let Some(alt) = image.alt() {
+        let mut image_span =
+            ctx.content.begin_marked_content_with_properties(Name(b"Span"));
+        let mut image_alt = image_span.properties();
+        image_alt.pair(Name(b"Alt"), pdf_writer::Str(alt.as_bytes()));
+        image_alt.finish();
+        image_span.finish();
+
+        ctx.content.x_object(Name(name.as_bytes()));
+        ctx.content.end_marked_content();
+    } else {
+        ctx.content.x_object(Name(name.as_bytes()));
+    }
+
+    ctx.content.restore_state();
+}
+
+/// Save a link for later writing in the annotations dictionary.
+fn write_link(ctx: &mut Builder, pos: Point, dest: &Destination, size: Size) {
+    let mut min_x = Abs::inf();
+    let mut min_y = Abs::inf();
+    let mut max_x = -Abs::inf();
+    let mut max_y = -Abs::inf();
+
+    // Compute the bounding box of the transformed link.
+    for point in [
+        pos,
+        pos + Point::with_x(size.x),
+        pos + Point::with_y(size.y),
+        pos + size.to_point(),
+    ] {
+        let t = point.transform(ctx.state.transform);
+        min_x.set_min(t.x);
+        min_y.set_min(t.y);
+        max_x.set_max(t.x);
+        max_y.set_max(t.y);
+    }
+
+    let x1 = min_x.to_f32();
+    let x2 = max_x.to_f32();
+    let y1 = max_y.to_f32();
+    let y2 = min_y.to_f32();
+    let rect = Rect::new(x1, y1, x2, y2);
+
+    ctx.links.push((dest.clone(), rect));
+}
+
+fn to_pdf_line_cap(cap: LineCap) -> LineCapStyle {
+    match cap {
+        LineCap::Butt => LineCapStyle::ButtCap,
+        LineCap::Round => LineCapStyle::RoundCap,
+        LineCap::Square => LineCapStyle::ProjectingSquareCap,
+    }
+}
+
+fn to_pdf_line_join(join: LineJoin) -> LineJoinStyle {
+    match join {
+        LineJoin::Miter => LineJoinStyle::MiterJoin,
+        LineJoin::Round => LineJoinStyle::RoundJoin,
+        LineJoin::Bevel => LineJoinStyle::BevelJoin,
+    }
+}
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/extg.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/extg.rs
index f3ad3815..47d89b40 100644
--- a/crates/typst-pdf/src/extg.rs
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/extg.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,8 @@
-use crate::PdfContext;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use pdf_writer::Ref;
+
+use crate::{PdfChunk, WithGlobalRefs};
 
 /// A PDF external graphics state.
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq, Hash)]
@@ -22,13 +26,25 @@ impl ExtGState {
 }
 
 /// Embed all used external graphics states into the PDF.
-pub(crate) fn write_external_graphics_states(ctx: &mut PdfContext) {
-    for external_gs in ctx.extg_map.items() {
-        let id = ctx.alloc.bump();
-        ctx.ext_gs_refs.push(id);
-        ctx.pdf
-            .ext_graphics(id)
-            .non_stroking_alpha(external_gs.fill_opacity as f32 / 255.0)
-            .stroking_alpha(external_gs.stroke_opacity as f32 / 255.0);
-    }
+pub fn write_graphic_states(
+    context: &WithGlobalRefs,
+) -> (PdfChunk, HashMap<ExtGState, Ref>) {
+    let mut chunk = PdfChunk::new();
+    let mut out = HashMap::new();
+    context.resources.traverse(&mut |resources| {
+        for external_gs in resources.ext_gs.items() {
+            if out.contains_key(external_gs) {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let id = chunk.alloc();
+            out.insert(*external_gs, id);
+            chunk
+                .ext_graphics(id)
+                .non_stroking_alpha(external_gs.fill_opacity as f32 / 255.0)
+                .stroking_alpha(external_gs.stroke_opacity as f32 / 255.0);
+        }
+    });
+
+    (chunk, out)
 }
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/font.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/font.rs
index 5d32e5d9..22c3d22f 100644
--- a/crates/typst-pdf/src/font.rs
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/font.rs
@@ -1,24 +1,24 @@
-use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap};
 use std::hash::Hash;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use ecow::{eco_format, EcoString};
-use pdf_writer::types::{CidFontType, FontFlags, SystemInfo, UnicodeCmap};
-use pdf_writer::writers::FontDescriptor;
-use pdf_writer::{Filter, Finish, Name, Rect, Str};
+use pdf_writer::{
+    types::{CidFontType, FontFlags, SystemInfo, UnicodeCmap},
+    writers::FontDescriptor,
+    Chunk, Filter, Finish, Name, Rect, Ref, Str,
+};
 use ttf_parser::{name_id, GlyphId, Tag};
-use typst::layout::{Abs, Em, Ratio, Transform};
 use typst::text::Font;
 use typst::utils::SliceExt;
 use unicode_properties::{GeneralCategory, UnicodeGeneralCategory};
 
-use crate::page::{write_frame, PageContext};
-use crate::{deflate, AbsExt, EmExt, PdfContext};
+use crate::{deflate, EmExt, PdfChunk, WithGlobalRefs};
 
 const CFF: Tag = Tag::from_bytes(b"CFF ");
 const CFF2: Tag = Tag::from_bytes(b"CFF2");
-const CMAP_NAME: Name = Name(b"Custom");
-const SYSTEM_INFO: SystemInfo = SystemInfo {
+pub(crate) const CMAP_NAME: Name = Name(b"Custom");
+pub(crate) const SYSTEM_INFO: SystemInfo = SystemInfo {
     registry: Str(b"Adobe"),
     ordering: Str(b"Identity"),
     supplement: 0,
@@ -26,230 +26,127 @@ const SYSTEM_INFO: SystemInfo = SystemInfo {
 
 /// Embed all used fonts into the PDF.
 #[typst_macros::time(name = "write fonts")]
-pub(crate) fn write_fonts(ctx: &mut PdfContext) {
-    write_color_fonts(ctx);
-
-    for font in ctx.font_map.items() {
-        let type0_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-        let cid_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-        let descriptor_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-        let cmap_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-        let data_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-        ctx.font_refs.push(type0_ref);
-
-        let glyph_set = ctx.glyph_sets.get_mut(font).unwrap();
-        let ttf = font.ttf();
-
-        // Do we have a TrueType or CFF font?
-        //
-        // FIXME: CFF2 must be handled differently and requires PDF 2.0
-        // (or we have to convert it to CFF).
-        let is_cff = ttf
-            .raw_face()
-            .table(CFF)
-            .or_else(|| ttf.raw_face().table(CFF2))
-            .is_some();
-
-        let postscript_name = font
-            .find_name(name_id::POST_SCRIPT_NAME)
-            .unwrap_or_else(|| "unknown".to_string());
-
-        let subset_tag = subset_tag(glyph_set);
-        let base_font = eco_format!("{subset_tag}+{postscript_name}");
-        let base_font_type0 = if is_cff {
-            eco_format!("{base_font}-Identity-H")
-        } else {
-            base_font.clone()
-        };
-
-        // Write the base font object referencing the CID font.
-        ctx.pdf
-            .type0_font(type0_ref)
-            .base_font(Name(base_font_type0.as_bytes()))
-            .encoding_predefined(Name(b"Identity-H"))
-            .descendant_font(cid_ref)
-            .to_unicode(cmap_ref);
-
-        // Write the CID font referencing the font descriptor.
-        let mut cid = ctx.pdf.cid_font(cid_ref);
-        cid.subtype(if is_cff { CidFontType::Type0 } else { CidFontType::Type2 });
-        cid.base_font(Name(base_font.as_bytes()));
-        cid.system_info(SYSTEM_INFO);
-        cid.font_descriptor(descriptor_ref);
-        cid.default_width(0.0);
-        if !is_cff {
-            cid.cid_to_gid_map_predefined(Name(b"Identity"));
-        }
-
-        // Extract the widths of all glyphs.
-        let mut widths = vec![];
-        for gid in std::iter::once(0).chain(glyph_set.keys().copied()) {
-            let width = ttf.glyph_hor_advance(GlyphId(gid)).unwrap_or(0);
-            let units = font.to_em(width).to_font_units();
-            let cid = glyph_cid(font, gid);
-            if usize::from(cid) >= widths.len() {
-                widths.resize(usize::from(cid) + 1, 0.0);
-                widths[usize::from(cid)] = units;
+pub fn write_fonts(context: &WithGlobalRefs) -> (PdfChunk, HashMap<Font, Ref>) {
+    let mut chunk = PdfChunk::new();
+    let mut out = HashMap::new();
+    context.resources.traverse(&mut |resources| {
+        for font in resources.fonts.items() {
+            if out.contains_key(font) {
+                continue;
             }
-        }
 
-        // Write all non-zero glyph widths.
-        let mut first = 0;
-        let mut width_writer = cid.widths();
-        for (w, group) in widths.group_by_key(|&w| w) {
-            let end = first + group.len();
-            if w != 0.0 {
-                let last = end - 1;
-                width_writer.same(first as u16, last as u16, w);
-            }
-            first = end;
-        }
+            let type0_ref = chunk.alloc();
+            let cid_ref = chunk.alloc();
+            let descriptor_ref = chunk.alloc();
+            let cmap_ref = chunk.alloc();
+            let data_ref = chunk.alloc();
+            out.insert(font.clone(), type0_ref);
+
+            let glyph_set = resources.glyph_sets.get(font).unwrap();
+            let ttf = font.ttf();
+
+            // Do we have a TrueType or CFF font?
+            //
+            // FIXME: CFF2 must be handled differently and requires PDF 2.0
+            // (or we have to convert it to CFF).
+            let is_cff = ttf
+                .raw_face()
+                .table(CFF)
+                .or_else(|| ttf.raw_face().table(CFF2))
+                .is_some();
 
-        width_writer.finish();
-        cid.finish();
+            let postscript_name = font
+                .find_name(name_id::POST_SCRIPT_NAME)
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| "unknown".to_string());
 
-        // Write the /ToUnicode character map, which maps glyph ids back to
-        // unicode codepoints to enable copying out of the PDF.
-        let cmap = create_cmap(font, glyph_set);
-        ctx.pdf.cmap(cmap_ref, &cmap.finish());
+            let subset_tag = subset_tag(glyph_set);
+            let base_font = eco_format!("{subset_tag}+{postscript_name}");
+            let base_font_type0 = if is_cff {
+                eco_format!("{base_font}-Identity-H")
+            } else {
+                base_font.clone()
+            };
+
+            // Write the base font object referencing the CID font.
+            chunk
+                .type0_font(type0_ref)
+                .base_font(Name(base_font_type0.as_bytes()))
+                .encoding_predefined(Name(b"Identity-H"))
+                .descendant_font(cid_ref)
+                .to_unicode(cmap_ref);
+
+            // Write the CID font referencing the font descriptor.
+            let mut cid = chunk.cid_font(cid_ref);
+            cid.subtype(if is_cff { CidFontType::Type0 } else { CidFontType::Type2 });
+            cid.base_font(Name(base_font.as_bytes()));
+            cid.system_info(SYSTEM_INFO);
+            cid.font_descriptor(descriptor_ref);
+            cid.default_width(0.0);
+            if !is_cff {
+                cid.cid_to_gid_map_predefined(Name(b"Identity"));
+            }
 
-        // Subset and write the font's bytes.
-        let glyphs: Vec<_> = glyph_set.keys().copied().collect();
-        let data = subset_font(font, &glyphs);
+            // Extract the widths of all glyphs.
+            let mut widths = vec![];
+            for gid in std::iter::once(0).chain(glyph_set.keys().copied()) {
+                let width = ttf.glyph_hor_advance(GlyphId(gid)).unwrap_or(0);
+                let units = font.to_em(width).to_font_units();
+                let cid = glyph_cid(font, gid);
+                if usize::from(cid) >= widths.len() {
+                    widths.resize(usize::from(cid) + 1, 0.0);
+                    widths[usize::from(cid)] = units;
+                }
+            }
 
-        let mut stream = ctx.pdf.stream(data_ref, &data);
-        stream.filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
-        if is_cff {
-            stream.pair(Name(b"Subtype"), Name(b"CIDFontType0C"));
-        }
+            // Write all non-zero glyph widths.
+            let mut first = 0;
+            let mut width_writer = cid.widths();
+            for (w, group) in widths.group_by_key(|&w| w) {
+                let end = first + group.len();
+                if w != 0.0 {
+                    let last = end - 1;
+                    width_writer.same(first as u16, last as u16, w);
+                }
+                first = end;
+            }
 
-        stream.finish();
+            width_writer.finish();
+            cid.finish();
 
-        let mut font_descriptor =
-            write_font_descriptor(&mut ctx.pdf, descriptor_ref, font, &base_font);
-        if is_cff {
-            font_descriptor.font_file3(data_ref);
-        } else {
-            font_descriptor.font_file2(data_ref);
-        }
-    }
-}
+            // Write the /ToUnicode character map, which maps glyph ids back to
+            // unicode codepoints to enable copying out of the PDF.
+            let cmap = create_cmap(font, glyph_set);
+            chunk.cmap(cmap_ref, &cmap.finish());
 
-/// Writes color fonts as Type3 fonts
-fn write_color_fonts(ctx: &mut PdfContext) {
-    let color_font_map = ctx.color_font_map.take_map();
-    for (font, color_font) in color_font_map {
-        // For each Type3 font that is part of this family…
-        for (font_index, subfont_id) in color_font.refs.iter().enumerate() {
-            // Allocate some IDs.
-            let cmap_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-            let descriptor_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-            let widths_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-            // And a map between glyph IDs and the instructions to draw this
-            // glyph.
-            let mut glyphs_to_instructions = Vec::new();
-
-            let start = font_index * 256;
-            let end = (start + 256).min(color_font.glyphs.len());
-            let glyph_count = end - start;
-            let subset = &color_font.glyphs[start..end];
-            let mut widths = Vec::new();
-            let mut gids = Vec::new();
-
-            let scale_factor = font.ttf().units_per_em() as f32;
-
-            // Write the instructions for each glyph.
-            for color_glyph in subset {
-                let instructions_stream_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-                let width =
-                    font.advance(color_glyph.gid).unwrap_or(Em::new(0.0)).to_font_units();
-                widths.push(width);
-                // Create a fake page context for `write_frame`. We are only
-                // interested in the contents of the page.
-                let size = color_glyph.frame.size();
-                let mut page_ctx = PageContext::new(ctx, size);
-                page_ctx.bottom = size.y.to_f32();
-                page_ctx.content.start_color_glyph(width);
-                page_ctx.transform(
-                    // Make the Y axis go upwards, while preserving aspect ratio
-                    Transform::scale(Ratio::one(), -size.aspect_ratio())
-                        // Also move the origin to the top left corner
-                        .post_concat(Transform::translate(Abs::zero(), size.y)),
-                );
-                write_frame(&mut page_ctx, &color_glyph.frame);
-
-                // Retrieve the stream of the page and write it.
-                let stream = page_ctx.content.finish();
-                ctx.pdf.stream(instructions_stream_ref, &stream);
-
-                // Use this stream as instructions to draw the glyph.
-                glyphs_to_instructions.push(instructions_stream_ref);
-                gids.push(color_glyph.gid);
-            }
+            // Subset and write the font's bytes.
+            let glyphs: Vec<_> = glyph_set.keys().copied().collect();
+            let data = subset_font(font, &glyphs);
 
-            // Write the Type3 font object.
-            let mut pdf_font = ctx.pdf.type3_font(*subfont_id);
-            pdf_font.pair(Name(b"Resources"), ctx.type3_font_resources_ref);
-            pdf_font.bbox(color_font.bbox);
-            pdf_font.matrix([1.0 / scale_factor, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0 / scale_factor, 0.0, 0.0]);
-            pdf_font.first_char(0);
-            pdf_font.last_char((glyph_count - 1) as u8);
-            pdf_font.pair(Name(b"Widths"), widths_ref);
-            pdf_font.to_unicode(cmap_ref);
-            pdf_font.font_descriptor(descriptor_ref);
-
-            // Write the /CharProcs dictionary, that maps glyph names to
-            // drawing instructions.
-            let mut char_procs = pdf_font.char_procs();
-            for (gid, instructions_ref) in glyphs_to_instructions.iter().enumerate() {
-                char_procs
-                    .pair(Name(eco_format!("glyph{gid}").as_bytes()), *instructions_ref);
+            let mut stream = chunk.stream(data_ref, &data);
+            stream.filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
+            if is_cff {
+                stream.pair(Name(b"Subtype"), Name(b"CIDFontType0C"));
             }
-            char_procs.finish();
-
-            // Write the /Encoding dictionary.
-            let names = (0..glyph_count)
-                .map(|gid| eco_format!("glyph{gid}"))
-                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-            pdf_font
-                .encoding_custom()
-                .differences()
-                .consecutive(0, names.iter().map(|name| Name(name.as_bytes())));
-            pdf_font.finish();
-
-            // Encode a CMAP to make it possible to search or copy glyphs.
-            let glyph_set = ctx.glyph_sets.get_mut(&font).unwrap();
-            let mut cmap = UnicodeCmap::new(CMAP_NAME, SYSTEM_INFO);
-            for (index, glyph) in subset.iter().enumerate() {
-                let Some(text) = glyph_set.get(&glyph.gid) else {
-                    continue;
-                };
-
-                if !text.is_empty() {
-                    cmap.pair_with_multiple(index as u8, text.chars());
-                }
-            }
-            ctx.pdf.cmap(cmap_ref, &cmap.finish());
 
-            // Write the font descriptor.
-            gids.sort();
-            let subset_tag = subset_tag(&gids);
-            let postscript_name = font
-                .find_name(name_id::POST_SCRIPT_NAME)
-                .unwrap_or_else(|| "unknown".to_string());
-            let base_font = eco_format!("{subset_tag}+{postscript_name}");
-            write_font_descriptor(&mut ctx.pdf, descriptor_ref, &font, &base_font);
+            stream.finish();
 
-            // Write the widths array
-            ctx.pdf.indirect(widths_ref).array().items(widths);
+            let mut font_descriptor =
+                write_font_descriptor(&mut chunk, descriptor_ref, font, &base_font);
+            if is_cff {
+                font_descriptor.font_file3(data_ref);
+            } else {
+                font_descriptor.font_file2(data_ref);
+            }
         }
-    }
+    });
+
+    (chunk, out)
 }
 
 /// Writes a FontDescriptor dictionary.
-fn write_font_descriptor<'a>(
-    pdf: &'a mut pdf_writer::Pdf,
-    descriptor_ref: pdf_writer::Ref,
+pub fn write_font_descriptor<'a>(
+    pdf: &'a mut Chunk,
+    descriptor_ref: Ref,
     font: &'a Font,
     base_font: &EcoString,
 ) -> FontDescriptor<'a> {
@@ -317,7 +214,7 @@ fn subset_font(font: &Font, glyphs: &[u16]) -> Arc<Vec<u8>> {
 }
 
 /// Produce a unique 6 letter tag for a glyph set.
-fn subset_tag<T: Hash>(glyphs: &T) -> EcoString {
+pub(crate) fn subset_tag<T: Hash>(glyphs: &T) -> EcoString {
     const LEN: usize = 6;
     const BASE: u128 = 26;
     let mut hash = typst::utils::hash128(&glyphs);
@@ -329,33 +226,40 @@ fn subset_tag<T: Hash>(glyphs: &T) -> EcoString {
     std::str::from_utf8(&letter).unwrap().into()
 }
 
-/// Create a /ToUnicode CMap.
-fn create_cmap(font: &Font, glyph_set: &mut BTreeMap<u16, EcoString>) -> UnicodeCmap {
-    let ttf = font.ttf();
-
-    // For glyphs that have codepoints mapping to them in the font's cmap table,
-    // we prefer them over pre-existing text mappings from the document. Only
-    // things that don't have a corresponding codepoint (or only a private-use
-    // one) like the "Th" in Linux Libertine get the text of their first
-    // occurrences in the document instead.
-    for subtable in ttf.tables().cmap.into_iter().flat_map(|table| table.subtables) {
-        if !subtable.is_unicode() {
-            continue;
-        }
+/// For glyphs that have codepoints mapping to them in the font's cmap table, we
+/// prefer them over pre-existing text mappings from the document. Only things
+/// that don't have a corresponding codepoint (or only a private-use one) like
+/// the "Th" in Linux Libertine get the text of their first occurrences in the
+/// document instead.
+///
+/// This function replaces as much copepoints from the document with ones from
+/// the cmap table as possible.
+pub fn improve_glyph_sets(glyph_sets: &mut HashMap<Font, BTreeMap<u16, EcoString>>) {
+    for (font, glyph_set) in glyph_sets {
+        let ttf = font.ttf();
 
-        subtable.codepoints(|n| {
-            let Some(c) = std::char::from_u32(n) else { return };
-            if c.general_category() == GeneralCategory::PrivateUse {
-                return;
+        for subtable in ttf.tables().cmap.into_iter().flat_map(|table| table.subtables) {
+            if !subtable.is_unicode() {
+                continue;
             }
 
-            let Some(GlyphId(g)) = ttf.glyph_index(c) else { return };
-            if glyph_set.contains_key(&g) {
-                glyph_set.insert(g, c.into());
-            }
-        });
+            subtable.codepoints(|n| {
+                let Some(c) = std::char::from_u32(n) else { return };
+                if c.general_category() == GeneralCategory::PrivateUse {
+                    return;
+                }
+
+                let Some(GlyphId(g)) = ttf.glyph_index(c) else { return };
+                if glyph_set.contains_key(&g) {
+                    glyph_set.insert(g, c.into());
+                }
+            });
+        }
     }
+}
 
+/// Create a /ToUnicode CMap.
+fn create_cmap(font: &Font, glyph_set: &BTreeMap<u16, EcoString>) -> UnicodeCmap {
     // Produce a reverse mapping from glyphs' CIDs to unicode strings.
     let mut cmap = UnicodeCmap::new(CMAP_NAME, SYSTEM_INFO);
     for (&g, text) in glyph_set.iter() {
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/gradient.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/gradient.rs
index 576c254e..de77df33 100644
--- a/crates/typst-pdf/src/gradient.rs
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/gradient.rs
@@ -1,19 +1,23 @@
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::f32::consts::{PI, TAU};
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use ecow::eco_format;
-use pdf_writer::types::{ColorSpaceOperand, FunctionShadingType};
-use pdf_writer::writers::StreamShadingType;
-use pdf_writer::{Filter, Finish, Name, Ref};
+use pdf_writer::{
+    types::{ColorSpaceOperand, FunctionShadingType},
+    writers::StreamShadingType,
+    Filter, Finish, Name, Ref,
+};
+
 use typst::layout::{Abs, Angle, Point, Quadrant, Ratio, Transform};
 use typst::utils::Numeric;
 use typst::visualize::{
     Color, ColorSpace, Gradient, RatioOrAngle, RelativeTo, WeightedColor,
 };
 
-use crate::color::{ColorSpaceExt, PaintEncode, QuantizedColor};
-use crate::page::{PageContext, PageResource, ResourceKind, Transforms};
-use crate::{deflate, transform_to_array, AbsExt, PdfContext};
+use crate::color::{self, ColorSpaceExt, PaintEncode, QuantizedColor};
+use crate::{content, WithGlobalRefs};
+use crate::{deflate, transform_to_array, AbsExt, PdfChunk};
 
 /// A unique-transform-aspect-ratio combination that will be encoded into the
 /// PDF.
@@ -32,122 +36,144 @@ pub struct PdfGradient {
 
 /// Writes the actual gradients (shading patterns) to the PDF.
 /// This is performed once after writing all pages.
-pub(crate) fn write_gradients(ctx: &mut PdfContext) {
-    for PdfGradient { transform, aspect_ratio, gradient, angle } in
-        ctx.gradient_map.items().cloned().collect::<Vec<_>>()
-    {
-        let shading = ctx.alloc.bump();
-        ctx.gradient_refs.push(shading);
-
-        let color_space = if gradient.space().hue_index().is_some() {
-            ColorSpace::Oklab
-        } else {
-            gradient.space()
-        };
-
-        let mut shading_pattern = match &gradient {
-            Gradient::Linear(_) => {
-                let shading_function = shading_function(ctx, &gradient, color_space);
-                let mut shading_pattern = ctx.pdf.shading_pattern(shading);
-                let mut shading = shading_pattern.function_shading();
-                shading.shading_type(FunctionShadingType::Axial);
-
-                ctx.colors.write(color_space, shading.color_space(), &mut ctx.alloc);
-
-                let (mut sin, mut cos) = (angle.sin(), angle.cos());
-
-                // Scale to edges of unit square.
-                let factor = cos.abs() + sin.abs();
-                sin *= factor;
-                cos *= factor;
-
-                let (x1, y1, x2, y2): (f64, f64, f64, f64) = match angle.quadrant() {
-                    Quadrant::First => (0.0, 0.0, cos, sin),
-                    Quadrant::Second => (1.0, 0.0, cos + 1.0, sin),
-                    Quadrant::Third => (1.0, 1.0, cos + 1.0, sin + 1.0),
-                    Quadrant::Fourth => (0.0, 1.0, cos, sin + 1.0),
-                };
-
-                shading
-                    .anti_alias(gradient.anti_alias())
-                    .function(shading_function)
-                    .coords([x1 as f32, y1 as f32, x2 as f32, y2 as f32])
-                    .extend([true; 2]);
-
-                shading.finish();
-
-                shading_pattern
-            }
-            Gradient::Radial(radial) => {
-                let shading_function = shading_function(ctx, &gradient, color_space);
-                let mut shading_pattern = ctx.pdf.shading_pattern(shading);
-                let mut shading = shading_pattern.function_shading();
-                shading.shading_type(FunctionShadingType::Radial);
-
-                ctx.colors.write(color_space, shading.color_space(), &mut ctx.alloc);
-
-                shading
-                    .anti_alias(gradient.anti_alias())
-                    .function(shading_function)
-                    .coords([
-                        radial.focal_center.x.get() as f32,
-                        radial.focal_center.y.get() as f32,
-                        radial.focal_radius.get() as f32,
-                        radial.center.x.get() as f32,
-                        radial.center.y.get() as f32,
-                        radial.radius.get() as f32,
-                    ])
-                    .extend([true; 2]);
-
-                shading.finish();
-
-                shading_pattern
+pub fn write_gradients(
+    context: &WithGlobalRefs,
+) -> (PdfChunk, HashMap<PdfGradient, Ref>) {
+    let mut chunk = PdfChunk::new();
+    let mut out = HashMap::new();
+    context.resources.traverse(&mut |resources| {
+        for pdf_gradient in resources.gradients.items() {
+            if out.contains_key(pdf_gradient) {
+                continue;
             }
-            Gradient::Conic(_) => {
-                let vertices = compute_vertex_stream(&gradient, aspect_ratio);
-
-                let stream_shading_id = ctx.alloc.bump();
-                let mut stream_shading =
-                    ctx.pdf.stream_shading(stream_shading_id, &vertices);
-
-                ctx.colors.write(
-                    color_space,
-                    stream_shading.color_space(),
-                    &mut ctx.alloc,
-                );
-
-                let range = color_space.range();
-                stream_shading
-                    .bits_per_coordinate(16)
-                    .bits_per_component(16)
-                    .bits_per_flag(8)
-                    .shading_type(StreamShadingType::CoonsPatch)
-                    .decode([
-                        0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 1.0, range[0], range[1], range[2], range[3],
-                        range[4], range[5],
-                    ])
-                    .anti_alias(gradient.anti_alias())
-                    .filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
-
-                stream_shading.finish();
-
-                let mut shading_pattern = ctx.pdf.shading_pattern(shading);
-                shading_pattern.shading_ref(stream_shading_id);
-                shading_pattern
-            }
-        };
 
-        shading_pattern.matrix(transform_to_array(transform));
-    }
+            let shading = chunk.alloc();
+            out.insert(pdf_gradient.clone(), shading);
+
+            let PdfGradient { transform, aspect_ratio, gradient, angle } = pdf_gradient;
+
+            let color_space = if gradient.space().hue_index().is_some() {
+                ColorSpace::Oklab
+            } else {
+                gradient.space()
+            };
+
+            let mut shading_pattern = match &gradient {
+                Gradient::Linear(_) => {
+                    let shading_function =
+                        shading_function(gradient, &mut chunk, color_space);
+                    let mut shading_pattern = chunk.chunk.shading_pattern(shading);
+                    let mut shading = shading_pattern.function_shading();
+                    shading.shading_type(FunctionShadingType::Axial);
+
+                    color::write(
+                        color_space,
+                        shading.color_space(),
+                        &context.globals.color_functions,
+                    );
+
+                    let (mut sin, mut cos) = (angle.sin(), angle.cos());
+
+                    // Scale to edges of unit square.
+                    let factor = cos.abs() + sin.abs();
+                    sin *= factor;
+                    cos *= factor;
+
+                    let (x1, y1, x2, y2): (f64, f64, f64, f64) = match angle.quadrant() {
+                        Quadrant::First => (0.0, 0.0, cos, sin),
+                        Quadrant::Second => (1.0, 0.0, cos + 1.0, sin),
+                        Quadrant::Third => (1.0, 1.0, cos + 1.0, sin + 1.0),
+                        Quadrant::Fourth => (0.0, 1.0, cos, sin + 1.0),
+                    };
+
+                    shading
+                        .anti_alias(gradient.anti_alias())
+                        .function(shading_function)
+                        .coords([x1 as f32, y1 as f32, x2 as f32, y2 as f32])
+                        .extend([true; 2]);
+
+                    shading.finish();
+
+                    shading_pattern
+                }
+                Gradient::Radial(radial) => {
+                    let shading_function =
+                        shading_function(gradient, &mut chunk, color_space_of(gradient));
+                    let mut shading_pattern = chunk.chunk.shading_pattern(shading);
+                    let mut shading = shading_pattern.function_shading();
+                    shading.shading_type(FunctionShadingType::Radial);
+
+                    color::write(
+                        color_space,
+                        shading.color_space(),
+                        &context.globals.color_functions,
+                    );
+
+                    shading
+                        .anti_alias(gradient.anti_alias())
+                        .function(shading_function)
+                        .coords([
+                            radial.focal_center.x.get() as f32,
+                            radial.focal_center.y.get() as f32,
+                            radial.focal_radius.get() as f32,
+                            radial.center.x.get() as f32,
+                            radial.center.y.get() as f32,
+                            radial.radius.get() as f32,
+                        ])
+                        .extend([true; 2]);
+
+                    shading.finish();
+
+                    shading_pattern
+                }
+                Gradient::Conic(_) => {
+                    let vertices = compute_vertex_stream(gradient, *aspect_ratio);
+
+                    let stream_shading_id = chunk.alloc();
+                    let mut stream_shading =
+                        chunk.chunk.stream_shading(stream_shading_id, &vertices);
+
+                    color::write(
+                        color_space,
+                        stream_shading.color_space(),
+                        &context.globals.color_functions,
+                    );
+
+                    let range = color_space.range();
+                    stream_shading
+                        .bits_per_coordinate(16)
+                        .bits_per_component(16)
+                        .bits_per_flag(8)
+                        .shading_type(StreamShadingType::CoonsPatch)
+                        .decode([
+                            0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 1.0, range[0], range[1], range[2], range[3],
+                            range[4], range[5],
+                        ])
+                        .anti_alias(gradient.anti_alias())
+                        .filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
+
+                    stream_shading.finish();
+
+                    let mut shading_pattern = chunk.shading_pattern(shading);
+                    shading_pattern.shading_ref(stream_shading_id);
+                    shading_pattern
+                }
+            };
+
+            shading_pattern.matrix(transform_to_array(*transform));
+        }
+    });
+
+    (chunk, out)
 }
 
 /// Writes an expotential or stitched function that expresses the gradient.
 fn shading_function(
-    ctx: &mut PdfContext,
     gradient: &Gradient,
+    chunk: &mut PdfChunk,
     color_space: ColorSpace,
 ) -> Ref {
-    let function = ctx.alloc.bump();
+    let function = chunk.alloc();
     let mut functions = vec![];
     let mut bounds = vec![];
     let mut encode = vec![];
@@ -166,7 +192,7 @@ fn shading_function(
                 let real_t = first.1.get() * (1.0 - t) + second.1.get() * t;
 
                 let c = gradient.sample(RatioOrAngle::Ratio(Ratio::new(real_t)));
-                functions.push(single_gradient(ctx, last_c, c, color_space));
+                functions.push(single_gradient(chunk, last_c, c, color_space));
                 bounds.push(real_t as f32);
                 encode.extend([0.0, 1.0]);
                 last_c = c;
@@ -174,7 +200,7 @@ fn shading_function(
         }
 
         bounds.push(second.1.get() as f32);
-        functions.push(single_gradient(ctx, first.0, second.0, color_space));
+        functions.push(single_gradient(chunk, first.0, second.0, color_space));
         encode.extend([0.0, 1.0]);
     }
 
@@ -187,7 +213,7 @@ fn shading_function(
     bounds.pop();
 
     // Create the stitching function.
-    ctx.pdf
+    chunk
         .stitching_function(function)
         .domain([0.0, 1.0])
         .range(color_space.range())
@@ -201,14 +227,13 @@ fn shading_function(
 /// Writes an expontential function that expresses a single segment (between two
 /// stops) of a gradient.
 fn single_gradient(
-    ctx: &mut PdfContext,
+    chunk: &mut PdfChunk,
     first_color: Color,
     second_color: Color,
     color_space: ColorSpace,
 ) -> Ref {
-    let reference = ctx.alloc.bump();
-
-    ctx.pdf
+    let reference = chunk.alloc();
+    chunk
         .exponential_function(reference)
         .range(color_space.range())
         .c0(color_space.convert(first_color))
@@ -220,7 +245,12 @@ fn single_gradient(
 }
 
 impl PaintEncode for Gradient {
-    fn set_as_fill(&self, ctx: &mut PageContext, on_text: bool, transforms: Transforms) {
+    fn set_as_fill(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut content::Builder,
+        on_text: bool,
+        transforms: content::Transforms,
+    ) {
         ctx.reset_fill_color_space();
 
         let index = register_gradient(ctx, self, on_text, transforms);
@@ -229,15 +259,13 @@ impl PaintEncode for Gradient {
 
         ctx.content.set_fill_color_space(ColorSpaceOperand::Pattern);
         ctx.content.set_fill_pattern(None, name);
-        ctx.resources
-            .insert(PageResource::new(ResourceKind::Gradient, id), index);
     }
 
     fn set_as_stroke(
         &self,
-        ctx: &mut PageContext,
+        ctx: &mut content::Builder,
         on_text: bool,
-        transforms: Transforms,
+        transforms: content::Transforms,
     ) {
         ctx.reset_stroke_color_space();
 
@@ -247,17 +275,15 @@ impl PaintEncode for Gradient {
 
         ctx.content.set_stroke_color_space(ColorSpaceOperand::Pattern);
         ctx.content.set_stroke_pattern(None, name);
-        ctx.resources
-            .insert(PageResource::new(ResourceKind::Gradient, id), index);
     }
 }
 
 /// Deduplicates a gradient to a named PDF resource.
 fn register_gradient(
-    ctx: &mut PageContext,
+    ctx: &mut content::Builder,
     gradient: &Gradient,
     on_text: bool,
-    mut transforms: Transforms,
+    mut transforms: content::Transforms,
 ) -> usize {
     // Edge cases for strokes.
     if transforms.size.x.is_zero() {
@@ -307,7 +333,9 @@ fn register_gradient(
         angle: Gradient::correct_aspect_ratio(rotation, size.aspect_ratio()),
     };
 
-    ctx.parent.gradient_map.insert(pdf_gradient)
+    ctx.resources.colors.mark_as_used(color_space_of(gradient));
+
+    ctx.resources.gradients.insert(pdf_gradient)
 }
 
 /// Writes a single Coons Patch as defined in the PDF specification
@@ -466,3 +494,11 @@ fn compute_vertex_stream(gradient: &Gradient, aspect_ratio: Ratio) -> Arc<Vec<u8
 
     Arc::new(deflate(&vertices))
 }
+
+fn color_space_of(gradient: &Gradient) -> ColorSpace {
+    if gradient.space().hue_index().is_some() {
+        ColorSpace::Oklab
+    } else {
+        gradient.space()
+    }
+}
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/image.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/image.rs
index 7d108d6d..9da7158c 100644
--- a/crates/typst-pdf/src/image.rs
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/image.rs
@@ -8,14 +8,119 @@ use typst::visualize::{
     ColorSpace, Image, ImageKind, RasterFormat, RasterImage, SvgImage,
 };
 
-use crate::{deflate, PdfContext};
+use crate::{color, deflate, PdfChunk, WithGlobalRefs};
+
+/// Embed all used images into the PDF.
+#[typst_macros::time(name = "write images")]
+pub fn write_images(context: &WithGlobalRefs) -> (PdfChunk, HashMap<Image, Ref>) {
+    let mut chunk = PdfChunk::new();
+    let mut out = HashMap::new();
+    context.resources.traverse(&mut |resources| {
+        for (i, image) in resources.images.items().enumerate() {
+            if out.contains_key(image) {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let handle = resources.deferred_images.get(&i).unwrap();
+            match handle.wait() {
+                EncodedImage::Raster {
+                    data,
+                    filter,
+                    has_color,
+                    width,
+                    height,
+                    icc,
+                    alpha,
+                } => {
+                    let image_ref = chunk.alloc();
+                    out.insert(image.clone(), image_ref);
+
+                    let mut image = chunk.chunk.image_xobject(image_ref, data);
+                    image.filter(*filter);
+                    image.width(*width as i32);
+                    image.height(*height as i32);
+                    image.bits_per_component(8);
+
+                    let mut icc_ref = None;
+                    let space = image.color_space();
+                    if icc.is_some() {
+                        let id = chunk.alloc.bump();
+                        space.icc_based(id);
+                        icc_ref = Some(id);
+                    } else if *has_color {
+                        color::write(
+                            ColorSpace::Srgb,
+                            space,
+                            &context.globals.color_functions,
+                        );
+                    } else {
+                        color::write(
+                            ColorSpace::D65Gray,
+                            space,
+                            &context.globals.color_functions,
+                        );
+                    }
+
+                    // Add a second gray-scale image containing the alpha values if
+                    // this image has an alpha channel.
+                    if let Some((alpha_data, alpha_filter)) = alpha {
+                        let mask_ref = chunk.alloc.bump();
+                        image.s_mask(mask_ref);
+                        image.finish();
+
+                        let mut mask = chunk.image_xobject(mask_ref, alpha_data);
+                        mask.filter(*alpha_filter);
+                        mask.width(*width as i32);
+                        mask.height(*height as i32);
+                        mask.color_space().device_gray();
+                        mask.bits_per_component(8);
+                    } else {
+                        image.finish();
+                    }
+
+                    if let (Some(icc), Some(icc_ref)) = (icc, icc_ref) {
+                        let mut stream = chunk.icc_profile(icc_ref, icc);
+                        stream.filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
+                        if *has_color {
+                            stream.n(3);
+                            stream.alternate().srgb();
+                        } else {
+                            stream.n(1);
+                            stream.alternate().d65_gray();
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                EncodedImage::Svg(svg_chunk) => {
+                    let mut map = HashMap::new();
+                    svg_chunk.renumber_into(&mut chunk.chunk, |old| {
+                        *map.entry(old).or_insert_with(|| chunk.alloc.bump())
+                    });
+                    out.insert(image.clone(), map[&Ref::new(1)]);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    });
+
+    (chunk, out)
+}
 
 /// Creates a new PDF image from the given image.
 ///
 /// Also starts the deferred encoding of the image.
 #[comemo::memoize]
-pub fn deferred_image(image: Image) -> Deferred<EncodedImage> {
-    Deferred::new(move || match image.kind() {
+pub fn deferred_image(image: Image) -> (Deferred<EncodedImage>, Option<ColorSpace>) {
+    let color_space = match image.kind() {
+        ImageKind::Raster(raster) if raster.icc().is_none() => {
+            if raster.dynamic().color().channel_count() > 2 {
+                Some(ColorSpace::Srgb)
+            } else {
+                Some(ColorSpace::D65Gray)
+            }
+        }
+        _ => None,
+    };
+
+    let deferred = Deferred::new(move || match image.kind() {
         ImageKind::Raster(raster) => {
             let raster = raster.clone();
             let (width, height) = (raster.width(), raster.height());
@@ -28,83 +133,9 @@ pub fn deferred_image(image: Image) -> Deferred<EncodedImage> {
             EncodedImage::Raster { data, filter, has_color, width, height, icc, alpha }
         }
         ImageKind::Svg(svg) => EncodedImage::Svg(encode_svg(svg)),
-    })
-}
+    });
 
-/// Embed all used images into the PDF.
-#[typst_macros::time(name = "write images")]
-pub(crate) fn write_images(ctx: &mut PdfContext) {
-    for (i, _) in ctx.image_map.items().enumerate() {
-        let handle = ctx.image_deferred_map.get(&i).unwrap();
-        match handle.wait() {
-            EncodedImage::Raster {
-                data,
-                filter,
-                has_color,
-                width,
-                height,
-                icc,
-                alpha,
-            } => {
-                let image_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-                ctx.image_refs.push(image_ref);
-
-                let mut image = ctx.pdf.image_xobject(image_ref, data);
-                image.filter(*filter);
-                image.width(*width as i32);
-                image.height(*height as i32);
-                image.bits_per_component(8);
-
-                let mut icc_ref = None;
-                let space = image.color_space();
-                if icc.is_some() {
-                    let id = ctx.alloc.bump();
-                    space.icc_based(id);
-                    icc_ref = Some(id);
-                } else if *has_color {
-                    ctx.colors.write(ColorSpace::Srgb, space, &mut ctx.alloc);
-                } else {
-                    ctx.colors.write(ColorSpace::D65Gray, space, &mut ctx.alloc);
-                }
-
-                // Add a second gray-scale image containing the alpha values if
-                // this image has an alpha channel.
-                if let Some((alpha_data, alpha_filter)) = alpha {
-                    let mask_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-                    image.s_mask(mask_ref);
-                    image.finish();
-
-                    let mut mask = ctx.pdf.image_xobject(mask_ref, alpha_data);
-                    mask.filter(*alpha_filter);
-                    mask.width(*width as i32);
-                    mask.height(*height as i32);
-                    mask.color_space().device_gray();
-                    mask.bits_per_component(8);
-                } else {
-                    image.finish();
-                }
-
-                if let (Some(icc), Some(icc_ref)) = (icc, icc_ref) {
-                    let mut stream = ctx.pdf.icc_profile(icc_ref, icc);
-                    stream.filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
-                    if *has_color {
-                        stream.n(3);
-                        stream.alternate().srgb();
-                    } else {
-                        stream.n(1);
-                        stream.alternate().d65_gray();
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            EncodedImage::Svg(chunk) => {
-                let mut map = HashMap::new();
-                chunk.renumber_into(&mut ctx.pdf, |old| {
-                    *map.entry(old).or_insert_with(|| ctx.alloc.bump())
-                });
-                ctx.image_refs.push(map[&Ref::new(1)]);
-            }
-        }
-    }
+    (deferred, color_space)
 }
 
 /// Encode an image with a suitable filter and return the data, filter and
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/lib.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/lib.rs
index 61906b1f..9af830bd 100644
--- a/crates/typst-pdf/src/lib.rs
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,40 +1,45 @@
 //! Exporting of Typst documents into PDFs.
 
+mod catalog;
 mod color;
+mod color_font;
+mod content;
 mod extg;
 mod font;
 mod gradient;
 mod image;
+mod named_destination;
 mod outline;
 mod page;
 mod pattern;
+mod resources;
 
-use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::hash::Hash;
-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::ops::{Deref, DerefMut};
 
 use base64::Engine;
-use ecow::{eco_format, EcoString};
-use indexmap::IndexMap;
-use pdf_writer::types::Direction;
-use pdf_writer::writers::Destination;
-use pdf_writer::{Finish, Name, Pdf, Rect, Ref, Str, TextStr};
-use typst::foundations::{Datetime, Label, NativeElement, Smart};
-use typst::introspection::Location;
-use typst::layout::{Abs, Dir, Em, Frame, PageRanges, Transform};
-use typst::model::{Document, HeadingElem};
-use typst::text::color::frame_for_glyph;
-use typst::text::{Font, Lang};
+use pdf_writer::{Chunk, Pdf, Ref};
+use typst::foundations::{Datetime, Smart};
+use typst::layout::{Abs, Em, PageRanges, Transform};
+use typst::model::Document;
+use typst::text::Font;
 use typst::utils::Deferred;
 use typst::visualize::Image;
-use xmp_writer::{DateTime, LangId, RenditionClass, Timezone, XmpWriter};
 
-use crate::color::ColorSpaces;
-use crate::extg::ExtGState;
-use crate::gradient::PdfGradient;
-use crate::image::EncodedImage;
-use crate::page::EncodedPage;
-use crate::pattern::PdfPattern;
+use crate::catalog::write_catalog;
+use crate::color::{alloc_color_functions_refs, ColorFunctionRefs};
+use crate::color_font::{write_color_fonts, ColorFontSlice};
+use crate::extg::{write_graphic_states, ExtGState};
+use crate::font::write_fonts;
+use crate::gradient::{write_gradients, PdfGradient};
+use crate::image::write_images;
+use crate::named_destination::{write_named_destinations, NamedDestinations};
+use crate::page::{alloc_page_refs, traverse_pages, write_page_tree, EncodedPage};
+use crate::pattern::{write_patterns, PdfPattern};
+use crate::resources::{
+    alloc_resources_refs, write_resource_dictionaries, Resources, ResourcesRefs,
+};
 
 /// Export a document into a PDF file.
 ///
@@ -65,512 +70,408 @@ pub fn pdf(
     timestamp: Option<Datetime>,
     page_ranges: Option<PageRanges>,
 ) -> Vec<u8> {
-    let mut ctx = PdfContext::new(document, page_ranges);
-    page::construct_pages(&mut ctx, &document.pages);
-    font::write_fonts(&mut ctx);
-    image::write_images(&mut ctx);
-    gradient::write_gradients(&mut ctx);
-    extg::write_external_graphics_states(&mut ctx);
-    pattern::write_patterns(&mut ctx);
-    write_named_destinations(&mut ctx);
-    page::write_page_tree(&mut ctx);
-    page::write_global_resources(&mut ctx);
-    write_catalog(&mut ctx, ident, timestamp);
-    ctx.pdf.finish()
-}
-
-/// Context for exporting a whole PDF document.
-struct PdfContext<'a> {
-    /// The document that we're currently exporting.
-    document: &'a Document,
-    /// The writer we are writing the PDF into.
+    PdfBuilder::new(document, page_ranges)
+        .phase(|builder| builder.run(traverse_pages))
+        .phase(|builder| GlobalRefs {
+            color_functions: builder.run(alloc_color_functions_refs),
+            pages: builder.run(alloc_page_refs),
+            resources: builder.run(alloc_resources_refs),
+        })
+        .phase(|builder| References {
+            named_destinations: builder.run(write_named_destinations),
+            fonts: builder.run(write_fonts),
+            color_fonts: builder.run(write_color_fonts),
+            images: builder.run(write_images),
+            gradients: builder.run(write_gradients),
+            patterns: builder.run(write_patterns),
+            ext_gs: builder.run(write_graphic_states),
+        })
+        .phase(|builder| builder.run(write_page_tree))
+        .phase(|builder| builder.run(write_resource_dictionaries))
+        .export_with(ident, timestamp, write_catalog)
+}
+
+/// A struct to build a PDF following a fixed succession of phases.
+///
+/// This type uses generics to represent its current state. `S` (for "state") is
+/// all data that was produced by the previous phases, that is now read-only.
+///
+/// Phase after phase, this state will be transformed. Each phase corresponds to
+/// a call to the [eponymous function](`PdfBuilder::phase`) and produces a new
+/// part of the state, that will be aggregated with all other information, for
+/// consumption during the next phase.
+///
+/// In other words: this struct follows the **typestate pattern**. This prevents
+/// you from using data that is not yet available, at the type level.
+///
+/// Each phase consists of processes, that can read the state of the previous
+/// phases, and construct a part of the new state.
+///
+/// A final step, that has direct access to the global reference allocator and
+/// PDF document, can be run with [`PdfBuilder::export_with`].
+struct PdfBuilder<S> {
+    /// The context that has been accumulated so far.
+    state: S,
+    /// A global bump allocator.
+    alloc: Ref,
+    /// The PDF document that is being written.
     pdf: Pdf,
-    /// Content of exported pages.
-    pages: Vec<Option<EncodedPage>>,
+}
+
+/// The initial state: we are exploring the document, collecting all resources
+/// that will be necessary later. The content of the pages is also built during
+/// this phase.
+struct WithDocument<'a> {
+    /// The Typst document that is exported.
+    document: &'a Document,
     /// Page ranges to export.
     /// When `None`, all pages are exported.
     exported_pages: Option<PageRanges>,
-    /// For each font a mapping from used glyphs to their text representation.
-    /// May contain multiple chars in case of ligatures or similar things. The
-    /// same glyph can have a different text representation within one document,
-    /// then we just save the first one. The resulting strings are used for the
-    /// PDF's /ToUnicode map for glyphs that don't have an entry in the font's
-    /// cmap. This is important for copy-paste and searching.
-    glyph_sets: HashMap<Font, BTreeMap<u16, EcoString>>,
-    /// The number of glyphs for all referenced languages in the document.
-    /// We keep track of this to determine the main document language.
-    /// BTreeMap is used to write sorted list of languages to metadata.
-    languages: BTreeMap<Lang, usize>,
-
-    /// Allocator for indirect reference IDs.
-    alloc: Ref,
-    /// The ID of the page tree.
-    page_tree_ref: Ref,
-    /// The ID of the globally shared Resources dictionary.
-    global_resources_ref: Ref,
-    /// The ID of the resource dictionary shared by Type3 fonts.
+}
+
+/// At this point, resources were listed, but they don't have any reference
+/// associated with them.
+///
+/// This phase allocates some global references.
+struct WithResources<'a> {
+    document: &'a Document,
+    exported_pages: Option<PageRanges>,
+    /// The content of the pages encoded as PDF content streams.
     ///
-    /// Type3 fonts cannot use the global resources, as it would create some
-    /// kind of infinite recursion (they are themselves present in that
-    /// dictionary), which Acrobat doesn't appreciate (it fails to parse the
-    /// font) even if the specification seems to allow it.
-    type3_font_resources_ref: Ref,
-    /// The IDs of written fonts.
-    font_refs: Vec<Ref>,
-    /// The IDs of written images.
-    image_refs: Vec<Ref>,
-    /// The IDs of written gradients.
-    gradient_refs: Vec<Ref>,
-    /// The IDs of written patterns.
-    pattern_refs: Vec<Ref>,
-    /// The IDs of written external graphics states.
-    ext_gs_refs: Vec<Ref>,
-    /// Handles color space writing.
-    colors: ColorSpaces,
-
-    /// Deduplicates fonts used across the document.
-    font_map: Remapper<Font>,
-    /// Deduplicates images used across the document.
-    image_map: Remapper<Image>,
-    /// Handles to deferred image conversions.
-    image_deferred_map: HashMap<usize, Deferred<EncodedImage>>,
-    /// Deduplicates gradients used across the document.
-    gradient_map: Remapper<PdfGradient>,
-    /// Deduplicates patterns used across the document.
-    pattern_map: Remapper<PdfPattern>,
-    /// Deduplicates external graphics states used across the document.
-    extg_map: Remapper<ExtGState>,
-    /// Deduplicates color glyphs.
-    color_font_map: ColorFontMap,
-
-    /// A sorted list of all named destinations.
-    dests: Vec<(Label, Ref)>,
-    /// Maps from locations to named destinations that point to them.
-    loc_to_dest: HashMap<Location, Label>,
-}
-
-impl<'a> PdfContext<'a> {
-    fn new(document: &'a Document, page_ranges: Option<PageRanges>) -> Self {
-        let mut alloc = Ref::new(1);
-        let page_tree_ref = alloc.bump();
-        let global_resources_ref = alloc.bump();
-        let type3_font_resources_ref = alloc.bump();
+    /// The pages are at the index corresponding to their page number, but they
+    /// may be `None` if they are not in the range specified by
+    /// `exported_pages`.
+    pages: Vec<Option<EncodedPage>>,
+    /// The PDF resources that are used in the content of the pages.
+    resources: Resources<()>,
+}
+
+/// Global references.
+struct GlobalRefs {
+    /// References for color conversion functions.
+    color_functions: ColorFunctionRefs,
+    /// Reference for pages.
+    ///
+    /// Items of this vector are `None` if the corresponding page is not
+    /// exported.
+    pages: Vec<Option<Ref>>,
+    /// References for the resource dictionaries.
+    resources: ResourcesRefs,
+}
+
+impl<'a> From<(WithDocument<'a>, (Vec<Option<EncodedPage>>, Resources<()>))>
+    for WithResources<'a>
+{
+    fn from(
+        (previous, (pages, resources)): (
+            WithDocument<'a>,
+            (Vec<Option<EncodedPage>>, Resources<()>),
+        ),
+    ) -> Self {
         Self {
-            document,
-            pdf: Pdf::new(),
-            pages: vec![],
-            exported_pages: page_ranges,
-            glyph_sets: HashMap::new(),
-            languages: BTreeMap::new(),
-            alloc,
-            page_tree_ref,
-            global_resources_ref,
-            type3_font_resources_ref,
-            font_refs: vec![],
-            image_refs: vec![],
-            gradient_refs: vec![],
-            pattern_refs: vec![],
-            ext_gs_refs: vec![],
-            colors: ColorSpaces::default(),
-            font_map: Remapper::new(),
-            image_map: Remapper::new(),
-            image_deferred_map: HashMap::default(),
-            gradient_map: Remapper::new(),
-            pattern_map: Remapper::new(),
-            extg_map: Remapper::new(),
-            color_font_map: ColorFontMap::new(),
-            dests: vec![],
-            loc_to_dest: HashMap::new(),
+            document: previous.document,
+            exported_pages: previous.exported_pages,
+            pages,
+            resources,
         }
     }
 }
 
-/// Write the document catalog.
-fn write_catalog(ctx: &mut PdfContext, ident: Smart<&str>, timestamp: Option<Datetime>) {
-    let lang = ctx.languages.iter().max_by_key(|(_, &count)| count).map(|(&l, _)| l);
-
-    let dir = if lang.map(Lang::dir) == Some(Dir::RTL) {
-        Direction::R2L
-    } else {
-        Direction::L2R
-    };
+/// At this point, the resources have been collected, and global references have
+/// been allocated.
+///
+/// We are now writing objects corresponding to resources, and giving them references,
+/// that will be collected in [`References`].
+struct WithGlobalRefs<'a> {
+    document: &'a Document,
+    exported_pages: Option<PageRanges>,
+    pages: Vec<Option<EncodedPage>>,
+    /// Resources are the same as in previous phases, but each dictionary now has a reference.
+    resources: Resources,
+    /// Global references that were just allocated.
+    globals: GlobalRefs,
+}
 
-    // Write the outline tree.
-    let outline_root_id = outline::write_outline(ctx);
+impl<'a> From<(WithResources<'a>, GlobalRefs)> for WithGlobalRefs<'a> {
+    fn from((previous, globals): (WithResources<'a>, GlobalRefs)) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            document: previous.document,
+            exported_pages: previous.exported_pages,
+            pages: previous.pages,
+            resources: previous.resources.with_refs(&globals.resources),
+            globals,
+        }
+    }
+}
 
-    // Write the page labels.
-    let page_labels = page::write_page_labels(ctx);
+/// The references that have been assigned to each object.
+struct References {
+    /// List of named destinations, each with an ID.
+    named_destinations: NamedDestinations,
+    /// The IDs of written fonts.
+    fonts: HashMap<Font, Ref>,
+    /// The IDs of written color fonts.
+    color_fonts: HashMap<ColorFontSlice, Ref>,
+    /// The IDs of written images.
+    images: HashMap<Image, Ref>,
+    /// The IDs of written gradients.
+    gradients: HashMap<PdfGradient, Ref>,
+    /// The IDs of written patterns.
+    patterns: HashMap<PdfPattern, Ref>,
+    /// The IDs of written external graphics states.
+    ext_gs: HashMap<ExtGState, Ref>,
+}
 
-    // Write the document information.
-    let mut info = ctx.pdf.document_info(ctx.alloc.bump());
-    let mut xmp = XmpWriter::new();
-    if let Some(title) = &ctx.document.title {
-        info.title(TextStr(title));
-        xmp.title([(None, title.as_str())]);
-    }
+/// At this point, the references have been assigned to all resources. The page
+/// tree is going to be written, and given a reference. It is also at this point that
+/// the page contents is actually written.
+struct WithRefs<'a> {
+    globals: GlobalRefs,
+    document: &'a Document,
+    pages: Vec<Option<EncodedPage>>,
+    exported_pages: Option<PageRanges>,
+    resources: Resources,
+    /// References that were allocated for resources.
+    references: References,
+}
 
-    let authors = &ctx.document.author;
-    if !authors.is_empty() {
-        // Turns out that if the authors are given in both the document
-        // information dictionary and the XMP metadata, Acrobat takes a little
-        // bit of both: The first author from the document information
-        // dictionary and the remaining authors from the XMP metadata.
-        //
-        // To fix this for Acrobat, we could omit the remaining authors or all
-        // metadata from the document information catalog (it is optional) and
-        // only write XMP. However, not all other tools (including Apple
-        // Preview) read the XMP data. This means we do want to include all
-        // authors in the document information dictionary.
-        //
-        // Thus, the only alternative is to fold all authors into a single
-        // `<rdf:li>` in the XMP metadata. This is, in fact, exactly what the
-        // PDF/A spec Part 1 section 6.7.3 has to say about the matter. It's a
-        // bit weird to not use the array (and it makes Acrobat show the author
-        // list in quotes), but there's not much we can do about that.
-        let joined = authors.join(", ");
-        info.author(TextStr(&joined));
-        xmp.creator([joined.as_str()]);
+impl<'a> From<(WithGlobalRefs<'a>, References)> for WithRefs<'a> {
+    fn from((previous, references): (WithGlobalRefs<'a>, References)) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            globals: previous.globals,
+            exported_pages: previous.exported_pages,
+            document: previous.document,
+            pages: previous.pages,
+            resources: previous.resources,
+            references,
+        }
     }
+}
 
-    let creator = eco_format!("Typst {}", env!("CARGO_PKG_VERSION"));
-    info.creator(TextStr(&creator));
-    xmp.creator_tool(&creator);
+/// In this phase, we write resource dictionaries.
+///
+/// Each sub-resource gets its own isolated resource dictionary.
+struct WithEverything<'a> {
+    globals: GlobalRefs,
+    document: &'a Document,
+    pages: Vec<Option<EncodedPage>>,
+    exported_pages: Option<PageRanges>,
+    resources: Resources,
+    references: References,
+    /// Reference that was allocated for the page tree.
+    page_tree_ref: Ref,
+}
 
-    let keywords = &ctx.document.keywords;
-    if !keywords.is_empty() {
-        let joined = keywords.join(", ");
-        info.keywords(TextStr(&joined));
-        xmp.pdf_keywords(&joined);
+impl<'a> From<(WithEverything<'a>, ())> for WithEverything<'a> {
+    fn from((this, _): (WithEverything<'a>, ())) -> Self {
+        this
     }
+}
 
-    if let Some(date) = ctx.document.date.unwrap_or(timestamp) {
-        let tz = ctx.document.date.is_auto();
-        if let Some(pdf_date) = pdf_date(date, tz) {
-            info.creation_date(pdf_date);
-            info.modified_date(pdf_date);
-        }
-        if let Some(xmp_date) = xmp_date(date, tz) {
-            xmp.create_date(xmp_date);
-            xmp.modify_date(xmp_date);
+impl<'a> From<(WithRefs<'a>, Ref)> for WithEverything<'a> {
+    fn from((previous, page_tree_ref): (WithRefs<'a>, Ref)) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            exported_pages: previous.exported_pages,
+            globals: previous.globals,
+            document: previous.document,
+            resources: previous.resources,
+            references: previous.references,
+            pages: previous.pages,
+            page_tree_ref,
         }
     }
+}
 
-    info.finish();
-    // Only count exported pages.
-    xmp.num_pages(ctx.pages.iter().filter(|page| page.is_some()).count() as u32);
-    xmp.format("application/pdf");
-    xmp.language(ctx.languages.keys().map(|lang| LangId(lang.as_str())));
-
-    // A unique ID for this instance of the document. Changes if anything
-    // changes in the frames.
-    let instance_id = hash_base64(&ctx.pdf.as_bytes());
-
-    // Determine the document's ID. It should be as stable as possible.
-    const PDF_VERSION: &str = "PDF-1.7";
-    let doc_id = if let Smart::Custom(ident) = ident {
-        // We were provided with a stable ID. Yay!
-        hash_base64(&(PDF_VERSION, ident))
-    } else if ctx.document.title.is_some() && !ctx.document.author.is_empty() {
-        // If not provided from the outside, but title and author were given, we
-        // compute a hash of them, which should be reasonably stable and unique.
-        hash_base64(&(PDF_VERSION, &ctx.document.title, &ctx.document.author))
-    } else {
-        // The user provided no usable metadata which we can use as an `/ID`.
-        instance_id.clone()
-    };
-
-    // Write IDs.
-    xmp.document_id(&doc_id);
-    xmp.instance_id(&instance_id);
-    ctx.pdf
-        .set_file_id((doc_id.clone().into_bytes(), instance_id.into_bytes()));
-
-    xmp.rendition_class(RenditionClass::Proof);
-    xmp.pdf_version("1.7");
-
-    let xmp_buf = xmp.finish(None);
-    let meta_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-    ctx.pdf
-        .stream(meta_ref, xmp_buf.as_bytes())
-        .pair(Name(b"Type"), Name(b"Metadata"))
-        .pair(Name(b"Subtype"), Name(b"XML"));
-
-    // Write the document catalog.
-    let mut catalog = ctx.pdf.catalog(ctx.alloc.bump());
-    catalog.pages(ctx.page_tree_ref);
-    catalog.viewer_preferences().direction(dir);
-    catalog.metadata(meta_ref);
-
-    // Write the named destination tree.
-    let mut name_dict = catalog.names();
-    let mut dests_name_tree = name_dict.destinations();
-    let mut names = dests_name_tree.names();
-    for &(name, dest_ref, ..) in &ctx.dests {
-        names.insert(Str(name.as_str().as_bytes()), dest_ref);
-    }
-    names.finish();
-    dests_name_tree.finish();
-    name_dict.finish();
-
-    // Insert the page labels.
-    if !page_labels.is_empty() {
-        let mut num_tree = catalog.page_labels();
-        let mut entries = num_tree.nums();
-        for (n, r) in &page_labels {
-            entries.insert(n.get() as i32 - 1, *r);
+impl<'a> PdfBuilder<WithDocument<'a>> {
+    /// Start building a PDF for a Typst document.
+    fn new(document: &'a Document, exported_pages: Option<PageRanges>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            alloc: Ref::new(1),
+            pdf: Pdf::new(),
+            state: WithDocument { document, exported_pages },
         }
     }
+}
 
-    if let Some(outline_root_id) = outline_root_id {
-        catalog.outlines(outline_root_id);
+impl<S> PdfBuilder<S> {
+    /// Start a new phase, and save its output in the global state.
+    fn phase<NS, B, O>(mut self, builder: B) -> PdfBuilder<NS>
+    where
+        // New state
+        NS: From<(S, O)>,
+        // Builder
+        B: Fn(&mut Self) -> O,
+    {
+        let output = builder(&mut self);
+        PdfBuilder {
+            state: NS::from((self.state, output)),
+            alloc: self.alloc,
+            pdf: self.pdf,
+        }
     }
 
-    if let Some(lang) = lang {
-        catalog.lang(TextStr(lang.as_str()));
-    }
+    /// Runs a step with the current state, merge its output in the PDF file,
+    /// and renumber any references it returned.
+    fn run<P, O>(&mut self, process: P) -> O
+    where
+        // Process
+        P: Fn(&S) -> (PdfChunk, O),
+        // Output
+        O: Renumber,
+    {
+        let (chunk, mut output) = process(&self.state);
+        // Allocate a final reference for each temporary one
+        let allocated = chunk.alloc.get() - TEMPORARY_REFS_START;
+        let offset = TEMPORARY_REFS_START - self.alloc.get();
+
+        // Merge the chunk into the PDF, using the new references
+        chunk.renumber_into(&mut self.pdf, |mut r| {
+            r.renumber(offset);
+
+            r
+        });
 
-    catalog.finish();
-}
-
-/// Fills in the map and vector for named destinations and writes the indirect
-/// destination objects.
-fn write_named_destinations(ctx: &mut PdfContext) {
-    let mut seen = HashSet::new();
-
-    // Find all headings that have a label and are the first among other
-    // headings with the same label.
-    let mut matches: Vec<_> = ctx
-        .document
-        .introspector
-        .query(&HeadingElem::elem().select())
-        .iter()
-        .filter_map(|elem| elem.location().zip(elem.label()))
-        .filter(|&(_, label)| seen.insert(label))
-        .collect();
-
-    // Named destinations must be sorted by key.
-    matches.sort_by_key(|&(_, label)| label);
-
-    for (loc, label) in matches {
-        let pos = ctx.document.introspector.position(loc);
-        let index = pos.page.get() - 1;
-        let y = (pos.point.y - Abs::pt(10.0)).max(Abs::zero());
-
-        // If the heading's page exists and is exported, include it.
-        if let Some(Some(page)) = ctx.pages.get(index) {
-            let dest_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-            let x = pos.point.x.to_f32();
-            let y = (page.size.y - y).to_f32();
-            ctx.dests.push((label, dest_ref));
-            ctx.loc_to_dest.insert(loc, label);
-            ctx.pdf
-                .indirect(dest_ref)
-                .start::<Destination>()
-                .page(page.id)
-                .xyz(x, y, None);
-        }
-    }
-}
+        // Also update the references in the output
+        output.renumber(offset);
 
-/// Compress data with the DEFLATE algorithm.
-fn deflate(data: &[u8]) -> Vec<u8> {
-    const COMPRESSION_LEVEL: u8 = 6;
-    miniz_oxide::deflate::compress_to_vec_zlib(data, COMPRESSION_LEVEL)
-}
+        self.alloc = Ref::new(self.alloc.get() + allocated);
 
-/// Memoized version of [`deflate`] specialized for a page's content stream.
-#[comemo::memoize]
-fn deflate_memoized(content: &[u8]) -> Arc<Vec<u8>> {
-    Arc::new(deflate(content))
-}
+        output
+    }
 
-/// Memoized and deferred version of [`deflate`] specialized for a page's content
-/// stream.
-#[comemo::memoize]
-fn deflate_deferred(content: Vec<u8>) -> Deferred<Vec<u8>> {
-    Deferred::new(move || deflate(&content))
+    /// Finalize the PDF export and returns the buffer representing the
+    /// document.
+    fn export_with<P>(
+        mut self,
+        ident: Smart<&str>,
+        timestamp: Option<Datetime>,
+        process: P,
+    ) -> Vec<u8>
+    where
+        P: Fn(S, Smart<&str>, Option<Datetime>, &mut Pdf, &mut Ref),
+    {
+        process(self.state, ident, timestamp, &mut self.pdf, &mut self.alloc);
+        self.pdf.finish()
+    }
 }
 
-/// Create a base64-encoded hash of the value.
-fn hash_base64<T: Hash>(value: &T) -> String {
-    base64::engine::general_purpose::STANDARD
-        .encode(typst::utils::hash128(value).to_be_bytes())
+/// A reference or collection of references that can be re-numbered,
+/// to become valid in a global scope.
+trait Renumber {
+    /// Renumber this value by shifting any references it contains by `offset`.
+    fn renumber(&mut self, offset: i32);
 }
 
-/// Converts a datetime to a pdf-writer date.
-fn pdf_date(datetime: Datetime, tz: bool) -> Option<pdf_writer::Date> {
-    let year = datetime.year().filter(|&y| y >= 0)? as u16;
-
-    let mut pdf_date = pdf_writer::Date::new(year);
-
-    if let Some(month) = datetime.month() {
-        pdf_date = pdf_date.month(month);
-    }
-
-    if let Some(day) = datetime.day() {
-        pdf_date = pdf_date.day(day);
-    }
+impl Renumber for () {
+    fn renumber(&mut self, _offset: i32) {}
+}
 
-    if let Some(h) = datetime.hour() {
-        pdf_date = pdf_date.hour(h);
+impl Renumber for Ref {
+    fn renumber(&mut self, offset: i32) {
+        if self.get() >= TEMPORARY_REFS_START {
+            *self = Ref::new(self.get() - offset);
+        }
     }
+}
 
-    if let Some(m) = datetime.minute() {
-        pdf_date = pdf_date.minute(m);
+impl<R: Renumber> Renumber for Vec<R> {
+    fn renumber(&mut self, offset: i32) {
+        for item in self {
+            item.renumber(offset);
+        }
     }
+}
 
-    if let Some(s) = datetime.second() {
-        pdf_date = pdf_date.second(s);
+impl<T: Eq + Hash, R: Renumber> Renumber for HashMap<T, R> {
+    fn renumber(&mut self, offset: i32) {
+        for v in self.values_mut() {
+            v.renumber(offset);
+        }
     }
+}
 
-    if tz {
-        pdf_date = pdf_date.utc_offset_hour(0).utc_offset_minute(0);
+impl<R: Renumber> Renumber for Option<R> {
+    fn renumber(&mut self, offset: i32) {
+        if let Some(r) = self {
+            r.renumber(offset)
+        }
     }
-
-    Some(pdf_date)
 }
 
-/// Converts a datetime to an xmp-writer datetime.
-fn xmp_date(datetime: Datetime, tz: bool) -> Option<xmp_writer::DateTime> {
-    let year = datetime.year().filter(|&y| y >= 0)? as u16;
-    Some(DateTime {
-        year,
-        month: datetime.month(),
-        day: datetime.day(),
-        hour: datetime.hour(),
-        minute: datetime.minute(),
-        second: datetime.second(),
-        timezone: if tz { Some(Timezone::Utc) } else { None },
-    })
+impl<T, R: Renumber> Renumber for (T, R) {
+    fn renumber(&mut self, offset: i32) {
+        self.1.renumber(offset)
+    }
 }
 
-/// Assigns new, consecutive PDF-internal indices to items.
-struct Remapper<T> {
-    /// Forwards from the items to the pdf indices.
-    to_pdf: HashMap<T, usize>,
-    /// Backwards from the pdf indices to the items.
-    to_items: Vec<T>,
+/// A portion of a PDF file.
+struct PdfChunk {
+    /// The actual chunk.
+    chunk: Chunk,
+    /// A local allocator.
+    alloc: Ref,
 }
 
-impl<T> Remapper<T>
-where
-    T: Eq + Hash + Clone,
-{
+/// Any reference below that value was already allocated before and
+/// should not be rewritten. Anything above was allocated in the current
+/// chunk, and should be remapped.
+///
+/// This is a constant (large enough to avoid collisions) and not
+/// dependant on self.alloc to allow for better memoization of steps, if
+/// needed in the future.
+const TEMPORARY_REFS_START: i32 = 1_000_000_000;
+
+/// A part of a PDF document.
+impl PdfChunk {
+    /// Start writing a new part of the document.
     fn new() -> Self {
-        Self { to_pdf: HashMap::new(), to_items: vec![] }
+        PdfChunk {
+            chunk: Chunk::new(),
+            alloc: Ref::new(TEMPORARY_REFS_START),
+        }
     }
 
-    fn insert(&mut self, item: T) -> usize {
-        let to_layout = &mut self.to_items;
-        *self.to_pdf.entry(item.clone()).or_insert_with(|| {
-            let pdf_index = to_layout.len();
-            to_layout.push(item);
-            pdf_index
-        })
+    /// Allocate a reference that is valid in the context of this chunk.
+    ///
+    /// References allocated with this function should be [renumbered](`Renumber::renumber`)
+    /// before being used in other chunks. This is done automatically if these
+    /// references are stored in the global `PdfBuilder` state.
+    fn alloc(&mut self) -> Ref {
+        self.alloc.bump()
     }
+}
 
-    fn pdf_indices<'a>(
-        &'a self,
-        refs: &'a [Ref],
-    ) -> impl Iterator<Item = (Ref, usize)> + 'a {
-        refs.iter().copied().zip(0..self.to_pdf.len())
-    }
+impl Deref for PdfChunk {
+    type Target = Chunk;
 
-    fn items(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &T> + '_ {
-        self.to_items.iter()
+    fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target {
+        &self.chunk
     }
 }
 
-/// A mapping between `Font`s and all the corresponding `ColorFont`s.
-///
-/// This mapping is one-to-many because there can only be 256 glyphs in a Type 3
-/// font, and fonts generally have more color glyphs than that.
-struct ColorFontMap {
-    /// The mapping itself
-    map: IndexMap<Font, ColorFont>,
-    /// A list of all PDF indirect references to Type3 font objects.
-    all_refs: Vec<Ref>,
-}
-
-/// A collection of Type3 font, belonging to the same TTF font.
-struct ColorFont {
-    /// A list of references to Type3 font objects for this font family.
-    refs: Vec<Ref>,
-    /// The list of all color glyphs in this family.
-    ///
-    /// The index in this vector modulo 256 corresponds to the index in one of
-    /// the Type3 fonts in `refs` (the `n`-th in the vector, where `n` is the
-    /// quotient of the index divided by 256).
-    glyphs: Vec<ColorGlyph>,
-    /// The global bounding box of the font.
-    bbox: Rect,
-    /// A mapping between glyph IDs and character indices in the `glyphs`
-    /// vector.
-    glyph_indices: HashMap<u16, usize>,
-}
-
-/// A single color glyph.
-struct ColorGlyph {
-    /// The ID of the glyph.
-    gid: u16,
-    /// A frame that contains the glyph.
-    frame: Frame,
-}
-
-impl ColorFontMap {
-    /// Creates a new empty mapping
-    fn new() -> Self {
-        Self { map: IndexMap::new(), all_refs: Vec::new() }
+impl DerefMut for PdfChunk {
+    fn deref_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Self::Target {
+        &mut self.chunk
     }
+}
 
-    /// Takes the contents of the mapping.
-    ///
-    /// After calling this function, the mapping will be empty.
-    fn take_map(&mut self) -> IndexMap<Font, ColorFont> {
-        std::mem::take(&mut self.map)
-    }
+/// Compress data with the DEFLATE algorithm.
+fn deflate(data: &[u8]) -> Vec<u8> {
+    const COMPRESSION_LEVEL: u8 = 6;
+    miniz_oxide::deflate::compress_to_vec_zlib(data, COMPRESSION_LEVEL)
+}
 
-    /// Obtains the reference to a Type3 font, and an index in this font
-    /// that can be used to draw a color glyph.
-    ///
-    /// The glyphs will be de-duplicated if needed.
-    fn get(&mut self, alloc: &mut Ref, font: &Font, gid: u16) -> (Ref, u8) {
-        let color_font = self.map.entry(font.clone()).or_insert_with(|| {
-            let global_bbox = font.ttf().global_bounding_box();
-            let bbox = Rect::new(
-                font.to_em(global_bbox.x_min).to_font_units(),
-                font.to_em(global_bbox.y_min).to_font_units(),
-                font.to_em(global_bbox.x_max).to_font_units(),
-                font.to_em(global_bbox.y_max).to_font_units(),
-            );
-            ColorFont {
-                bbox,
-                refs: Vec::new(),
-                glyphs: Vec::new(),
-                glyph_indices: HashMap::new(),
-            }
-        });
+/// Memoized and deferred version of [`deflate`] specialized for a page's content
+/// stream.
+#[comemo::memoize]
+fn deflate_deferred(content: Vec<u8>) -> Deferred<Vec<u8>> {
+    Deferred::new(move || deflate(&content))
+}
 
-        if let Some(index_of_glyph) = color_font.glyph_indices.get(&gid) {
-            // If we already know this glyph, return it.
-            (color_font.refs[index_of_glyph / 256], *index_of_glyph as u8)
-        } else {
-            // Otherwise, allocate a new ColorGlyph in the font, and a new Type3 font
-            // if needed
-            let index = color_font.glyphs.len();
-            if index % 256 == 0 {
-                let new_ref = alloc.bump();
-                self.all_refs.push(new_ref);
-                color_font.refs.push(new_ref);
-            }
-
-            let instructions = frame_for_glyph(font, gid);
-            color_font.glyphs.push(ColorGlyph { gid, frame: instructions });
-            color_font.glyph_indices.insert(gid, index);
-
-            (color_font.refs[index / 256], index as u8)
-        }
-    }
+/// Create a base64-encoded hash of the value.
+fn hash_base64<T: Hash>(value: &T) -> String {
+    base64::engine::general_purpose::STANDARD
+        .encode(typst::utils::hash128(value).to_be_bytes())
 }
 
 /// Additional methods for [`Abs`].
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/named_destination.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/named_destination.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..f9729ca1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/named_destination.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+
+use pdf_writer::{writers::Destination, Ref};
+use typst::foundations::{Label, NativeElement};
+use typst::introspection::Location;
+use typst::layout::Abs;
+use typst::model::HeadingElem;
+
+use crate::{AbsExt, PdfChunk, Renumber, WithGlobalRefs};
+
+/// A list of destinations in the PDF document (a specific point on a specific
+/// page), that have a name associated with them.
+///
+/// Typst creates a named destination for each heading in the document, that
+/// will then be written in the document catalog. PDF readers can then display
+/// them to show a clickable outline of the document.
+#[derive(Default)]
+pub struct NamedDestinations {
+    /// A map between elements and their associated labels
+    pub loc_to_dest: HashMap<Location, Label>,
+    /// A sorted list of all named destinations.
+    pub dests: Vec<(Label, Ref)>,
+}
+
+impl Renumber for NamedDestinations {
+    fn renumber(&mut self, offset: i32) {
+        for (_, reference) in &mut self.dests {
+            reference.renumber(offset);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fills in the map and vector for named destinations and writes the indirect
+/// destination objects.
+pub fn write_named_destinations(
+    context: &WithGlobalRefs,
+) -> (PdfChunk, NamedDestinations) {
+    let mut chunk = PdfChunk::new();
+    let mut out = NamedDestinations::default();
+    let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+
+    // Find all headings that have a label and are the first among other
+    // headings with the same label.
+    let mut matches: Vec<_> = context
+        .document
+        .introspector
+        .query(&HeadingElem::elem().select())
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|elem| elem.location().zip(elem.label()))
+        .filter(|&(_, label)| seen.insert(label))
+        .collect();
+
+    // Named destinations must be sorted by key.
+    matches.sort_by_key(|&(_, label)| label);
+
+    for (loc, label) in matches {
+        let pos = context.document.introspector.position(loc);
+        let index = pos.page.get() - 1;
+        let y = (pos.point.y - Abs::pt(10.0)).max(Abs::zero());
+
+        if let Some((Some(page), Some(page_ref))) =
+            context.pages.get(index).zip(context.globals.pages.get(index))
+        {
+            let dest_ref = chunk.alloc();
+            let x = pos.point.x.to_f32();
+            let y = (page.content.size.y - y).to_f32();
+            out.dests.push((label, dest_ref));
+            out.loc_to_dest.insert(loc, label);
+            chunk
+                .indirect(dest_ref)
+                .start::<Destination>()
+                .page(*page_ref)
+                .xyz(x, y, None);
+        }
+    }
+
+    (chunk, out)
+}
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/outline.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/outline.rs
index e2195bb7..94d55b54 100644
--- a/crates/typst-pdf/src/outline.rs
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/outline.rs
@@ -1,14 +1,19 @@
 use std::num::NonZeroUsize;
 
-use pdf_writer::{Finish, Ref, TextStr};
+use pdf_writer::{Finish, Pdf, Ref, TextStr};
+
 use typst::foundations::{NativeElement, Packed, StyleChain};
 use typst::layout::Abs;
 use typst::model::HeadingElem;
 
-use crate::{AbsExt, PdfContext};
+use crate::{AbsExt, WithEverything};
 
 /// Construct the outline for the document.
-pub(crate) fn write_outline(ctx: &mut PdfContext) -> Option<Ref> {
+pub(crate) fn write_outline(
+    chunk: &mut Pdf,
+    alloc: &mut Ref,
+    ctx: &WithEverything,
+) -> Option<Ref> {
     let mut tree: Vec<HeadingNode> = vec![];
 
     // Stores the level of the topmost skipped ancestor of the next bookmarked
@@ -95,20 +100,28 @@ pub(crate) fn write_outline(ctx: &mut PdfContext) -> Option<Ref> {
         return None;
     }
 
-    let root_id = ctx.alloc.bump();
-    let start_ref = ctx.alloc;
+    let root_id = alloc.bump();
+    let start_ref = *alloc;
     let len = tree.len();
 
     let mut prev_ref = None;
     for (i, node) in tree.iter().enumerate() {
-        prev_ref = Some(write_outline_item(ctx, node, root_id, prev_ref, i + 1 == len));
+        prev_ref = Some(write_outline_item(
+            ctx,
+            chunk,
+            alloc,
+            node,
+            root_id,
+            prev_ref,
+            i + 1 == len,
+        ));
     }
 
-    ctx.pdf
+    chunk
         .outline(root_id)
         .first(start_ref)
         .last(Ref::new(
-            ctx.alloc.get() - tree.last().map(|child| child.len() as i32).unwrap_or(1),
+            alloc.get() - tree.last().map(|child| child.len() as i32).unwrap_or(1),
         ))
         .count(tree.len() as i32);
 
@@ -116,7 +129,7 @@ pub(crate) fn write_outline(ctx: &mut PdfContext) -> Option<Ref> {
 }
 
 /// A heading in the outline panel.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+#[derive(Debug)]
 struct HeadingNode<'a> {
     element: &'a Packed<HeadingElem>,
     level: NonZeroUsize,
@@ -144,16 +157,18 @@ impl<'a> HeadingNode<'a> {
 
 /// Write an outline item and all its children.
 fn write_outline_item(
-    ctx: &mut PdfContext,
+    ctx: &WithEverything,
+    chunk: &mut Pdf,
+    alloc: &mut Ref,
     node: &HeadingNode,
     parent_ref: Ref,
     prev_ref: Option<Ref>,
     is_last: bool,
 ) -> Ref {
-    let id = ctx.alloc.bump();
+    let id = alloc.bump();
     let next_ref = Ref::new(id.get() + node.len() as i32);
 
-    let mut outline = ctx.pdf.outline_item(id);
+    let mut outline = chunk.outline_item(id);
     outline.parent(parent_ref);
 
     if !is_last {
@@ -178,11 +193,13 @@ fn write_outline_item(
     let index = pos.page.get() - 1;
 
     // Don't link to non-exported pages.
-    if let Some(Some(page)) = ctx.pages.get(index) {
+    if let Some((Some(page), Some(page_ref))) =
+        ctx.pages.get(index).zip(ctx.globals.pages.get(index))
+    {
         let y = (pos.point.y - Abs::pt(10.0)).max(Abs::zero());
-        outline.dest().page(page.id).xyz(
+        outline.dest().page(*page_ref).xyz(
             pos.point.x.to_f32(),
-            (page.size.y - y).to_f32(),
+            (page.content.size.y - y).to_f32(),
             None,
         );
     }
@@ -193,6 +210,8 @@ fn write_outline_item(
     for (i, child) in node.children.iter().enumerate() {
         prev_ref = Some(write_outline_item(
             ctx,
+            chunk,
+            alloc,
             child,
             id,
             prev_ref,
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/page.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/page.rs
index 42c87f8e..f796d0c8 100644
--- a/crates/typst-pdf/src/page.rs
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/page.rs
@@ -1,43 +1,39 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::num::NonZeroUsize;
 
-use crate::color::PaintEncode;
-use crate::extg::ExtGState;
-use crate::image::deferred_image;
-use crate::{deflate_deferred, AbsExt, EmExt, PdfContext};
-use ecow::{eco_format, EcoString};
-use pdf_writer::types::{
-    ActionType, AnnotationFlags, AnnotationType, ColorSpaceOperand, LineCapStyle,
-    LineJoinStyle, NumberingStyle, TextRenderingMode,
-};
-use pdf_writer::writers::{PageLabel, Resources};
-use pdf_writer::{Content, Filter, Finish, Name, Rect, Ref, Str, TextStr};
-use typst::layout::{
-    Abs, Em, Frame, FrameItem, GroupItem, Page, Point, Ratio, Size, Transform,
+use ecow::EcoString;
+use pdf_writer::{
+    types::{ActionType, AnnotationFlags, AnnotationType, NumberingStyle},
+    Filter, Finish, Name, Rect, Ref, Str,
 };
+use typst::foundations::Label;
+use typst::introspection::Location;
+use typst::layout::{Abs, Frame};
 use typst::model::{Destination, Numbering};
-use typst::text::color::is_color_glyph;
-use typst::text::{Case, Font, TextItem, TextItemView};
-use typst::utils::{Deferred, Numeric, SliceExt};
-use typst::visualize::{
-    FixedStroke, Geometry, Image, LineCap, LineJoin, Paint, Path, PathItem, Shape,
-};
+use typst::text::Case;
+
+use crate::{content, AbsExt, PdfChunk, WithDocument, WithRefs, WithResources};
+use crate::{font::improve_glyph_sets, Resources};
 
 /// Construct page objects.
 #[typst_macros::time(name = "construct pages")]
-pub(crate) fn construct_pages(ctx: &mut PdfContext, pages: &[Page]) {
+pub fn traverse_pages(
+    state: &WithDocument,
+) -> (PdfChunk, (Vec<Option<EncodedPage>>, Resources<()>)) {
+    let mut resources = Resources::default();
+    let mut pages = Vec::with_capacity(state.document.pages.len());
     let mut skipped_pages = 0;
-    for (i, page) in pages.iter().enumerate() {
-        if ctx
+    for (i, page) in state.document.pages.iter().enumerate() {
+        if state
             .exported_pages
             .as_ref()
             .is_some_and(|ranges| !ranges.includes_page_index(i))
         {
             // Don't export this page.
-            ctx.pages.push(None);
+            pages.push(None);
             skipped_pages += 1;
         } else {
-            let mut encoded = construct_page(ctx, &page.frame);
+            let mut encoded = construct_page(&mut resources, &page.frame);
             encoded.label = page
                 .numbering
                 .as_ref()
@@ -52,161 +48,84 @@ pub(crate) fn construct_pages(ctx: &mut PdfContext, pages: &[Page]) {
                     // the corresponding real page number in the Typst document.
                     (skipped_pages > 0).then(|| PdfPageLabel::arabic(i + 1))
                 });
-            ctx.pages.push(Some(encoded));
+            pages.push(Some(encoded));
         }
     }
+
+    improve_glyph_sets(&mut resources.glyph_sets);
+
+    (PdfChunk::new(), (pages, resources))
 }
 
 /// Construct a page object.
 #[typst_macros::time(name = "construct page")]
-pub(crate) fn construct_page(ctx: &mut PdfContext, frame: &Frame) -> EncodedPage {
-    let page_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
+fn construct_page(out: &mut Resources<()>, frame: &Frame) -> EncodedPage {
+    let content = content::build(out, frame, None);
 
-    let size = frame.size();
-    let mut ctx = PageContext::new(ctx, size);
-
-    // Make the coordinate system start at the top-left.
-    ctx.bottom = size.y.to_f32();
-    ctx.transform(Transform {
-        sx: Ratio::one(),
-        ky: Ratio::zero(),
-        kx: Ratio::zero(),
-        sy: Ratio::new(-1.0),
-        tx: Abs::zero(),
-        ty: size.y,
-    });
-
-    // Encode the page into the content stream.
-    write_frame(&mut ctx, frame);
-
-    EncodedPage {
-        size,
-        content: deflate_deferred(ctx.content.finish()),
-        id: page_ref,
-        uses_opacities: ctx.uses_opacities,
-        links: ctx.links,
-        label: None,
-        resources: ctx.resources,
-    }
+    EncodedPage { content, label: None }
 }
 
-/// Write the page tree.
-pub(crate) fn write_page_tree(ctx: &mut PdfContext) {
-    let mut refs = vec![];
-    for i in 0..ctx.pages.len() {
-        write_page(ctx, i, &mut refs);
-    }
-
-    ctx.pdf
-        .pages(ctx.page_tree_ref)
-        .count(refs.len() as i32)
-        .kids(refs.iter().copied());
+/// Allocate a reference for each exported page.
+pub fn alloc_page_refs(context: &WithResources) -> (PdfChunk, Vec<Option<Ref>>) {
+    let mut chunk = PdfChunk::new();
+    let page_refs = context
+        .pages
+        .iter()
+        .map(|p| p.as_ref().map(|_| chunk.alloc()))
+        .collect();
+    (chunk, page_refs)
 }
 
-/// Write the global resource dictionary that will be referenced by all pages.
-///
-/// We add a reference to this dictionary to each page individually instead of
-/// to the root node of the page tree because using the resource inheritance
-/// feature breaks PDF merging with Apple Preview.
-pub(crate) fn write_global_resources(ctx: &mut PdfContext) {
-    let images_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-    let patterns_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-    let ext_gs_states_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-    let color_spaces_ref = ctx.alloc.bump();
-
-    let mut images = ctx.pdf.indirect(images_ref).dict();
-    for (image_ref, im) in ctx.image_map.pdf_indices(&ctx.image_refs) {
-        let name = eco_format!("Im{}", im);
-        images.pair(Name(name.as_bytes()), image_ref);
-    }
-    images.finish();
-
-    let mut patterns = ctx.pdf.indirect(patterns_ref).dict();
-    for (gradient_ref, gr) in ctx.gradient_map.pdf_indices(&ctx.gradient_refs) {
-        let name = eco_format!("Gr{}", gr);
-        patterns.pair(Name(name.as_bytes()), gradient_ref);
-    }
-
-    for (pattern_ref, p) in ctx.pattern_map.pdf_indices(&ctx.pattern_refs) {
-        let name = eco_format!("P{}", p);
-        patterns.pair(Name(name.as_bytes()), pattern_ref);
-    }
-    patterns.finish();
-
-    let mut ext_gs_states = ctx.pdf.indirect(ext_gs_states_ref).dict();
-    for (gs_ref, gs) in ctx.extg_map.pdf_indices(&ctx.ext_gs_refs) {
-        let name = eco_format!("Gs{}", gs);
-        ext_gs_states.pair(Name(name.as_bytes()), gs_ref);
-    }
-    ext_gs_states.finish();
-
-    let color_spaces = ctx.pdf.indirect(color_spaces_ref).dict();
-    ctx.colors.write_color_spaces(color_spaces, &mut ctx.alloc);
-
-    let mut resources = ctx.pdf.indirect(ctx.global_resources_ref).start::<Resources>();
-    resources.pair(Name(b"XObject"), images_ref);
-    resources.pair(Name(b"Pattern"), patterns_ref);
-    resources.pair(Name(b"ExtGState"), ext_gs_states_ref);
-    resources.pair(Name(b"ColorSpace"), color_spaces_ref);
-
-    let mut fonts = resources.fonts();
-    for (font_ref, f) in ctx.font_map.pdf_indices(&ctx.font_refs) {
-        let name = eco_format!("F{}", f);
-        fonts.pair(Name(name.as_bytes()), font_ref);
-    }
+/// Write the page tree.
+pub fn write_page_tree(ctx: &WithRefs) -> (PdfChunk, Ref) {
+    let mut chunk = PdfChunk::new();
+    let page_tree_ref = chunk.alloc.bump();
 
-    for font in &ctx.color_font_map.all_refs {
-        let name = eco_format!("Cf{}", font.get());
-        fonts.pair(Name(name.as_bytes()), font);
+    for i in 0..ctx.pages.len() {
+        let content_id = chunk.alloc.bump();
+        write_page(
+            &mut chunk,
+            ctx,
+            content_id,
+            page_tree_ref,
+            &ctx.references.named_destinations.loc_to_dest,
+            i,
+        );
     }
-    fonts.finish();
-
-    resources.finish();
 
-    // Also write the resources for Type3 fonts, that only contains images,
-    // color spaces and regular fonts (COLR glyphs depend on them).
-    if !ctx.color_font_map.all_refs.is_empty() {
-        let mut resources =
-            ctx.pdf.indirect(ctx.type3_font_resources_ref).start::<Resources>();
-        resources.pair(Name(b"XObject"), images_ref);
-        resources.pair(Name(b"Pattern"), patterns_ref);
-        resources.pair(Name(b"ExtGState"), ext_gs_states_ref);
-        resources.pair(Name(b"ColorSpace"), color_spaces_ref);
-
-        let mut fonts = resources.fonts();
-        for (font_ref, f) in ctx.font_map.pdf_indices(&ctx.font_refs) {
-            let name = eco_format!("F{}", f);
-            fonts.pair(Name(name.as_bytes()), font_ref);
-        }
-        fonts.finish();
-
-        resources.finish();
-    }
+    chunk
+        .pages(page_tree_ref)
+        .count(ctx.pages.len() as i32)
+        .kids(ctx.globals.pages.iter().filter_map(Option::as_ref).copied());
 
-    // Write all of the functions used by the document.
-    ctx.colors.write_functions(&mut ctx.pdf);
+    (chunk, page_tree_ref)
 }
 
 /// Write a page tree node.
-fn write_page(ctx: &mut PdfContext, i: usize, refs: &mut Vec<Ref>) {
-    let Some(page) = &ctx.pages[i] else {
+fn write_page(
+    chunk: &mut PdfChunk,
+    ctx: &WithRefs,
+    content_id: Ref,
+    page_tree_ref: Ref,
+    loc_to_dest: &HashMap<Location, Label>,
+    i: usize,
+) {
+    let Some((page, page_ref)) = ctx.pages[i].as_ref().zip(ctx.globals.pages[i]) else {
         // Page excluded from export.
         return;
     };
-    let content_id = ctx.alloc.bump();
 
-    refs.push(page.id);
+    let global_resources_ref = ctx.resources.reference;
+    let mut page_writer = chunk.page(page_ref);
+    page_writer.parent(page_tree_ref);
 
-    let mut page_writer = ctx.pdf.page(page.id);
-    page_writer.parent(ctx.page_tree_ref);
-
-    let w = page.size.x.to_f32();
-    let h = page.size.y.to_f32();
+    let w = page.content.size.x.to_f32();
+    let h = page.content.size.y.to_f32();
     page_writer.media_box(Rect::new(0.0, 0.0, w, h));
     page_writer.contents(content_id);
-    page_writer.pair(Name(b"Resources"), ctx.global_resources_ref);
+    page_writer.pair(Name(b"Resources"), global_resources_ref);
 
-    if page.uses_opacities {
+    if page.content.uses_opacities {
         page_writer
             .group()
             .transparency()
@@ -217,7 +136,7 @@ fn write_page(ctx: &mut PdfContext, i: usize, refs: &mut Vec<Ref>) {
     }
 
     let mut annotations = page_writer.annotations();
-    for (dest, rect) in &page.links {
+    for (dest, rect) in &page.content.links {
         let mut annotation = annotations.push();
         annotation.subtype(AnnotationType::Link).rect(*rect);
         annotation.border(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, None).flags(AnnotationFlags::PRINT);
@@ -232,7 +151,7 @@ fn write_page(ctx: &mut PdfContext, i: usize, refs: &mut Vec<Ref>) {
             }
             Destination::Position(pos) => *pos,
             Destination::Location(loc) => {
-                if let Some(key) = ctx.loc_to_dest.get(loc) {
+                if let Some(key) = loc_to_dest.get(loc) {
                     annotation
                         .action()
                         .action_type(ActionType::GoTo)
@@ -249,102 +168,45 @@ fn write_page(ctx: &mut PdfContext, i: usize, refs: &mut Vec<Ref>) {
         let y = (pos.point.y - Abs::pt(10.0)).max(Abs::zero());
 
         // Don't add links to non-exported pages.
-        if let Some(Some(page)) = ctx.pages.get(index) {
+        if let Some((Some(page), Some(page_ref))) =
+            ctx.pages.get(index).zip(ctx.globals.pages.get(index))
+        {
             annotation
                 .action()
                 .action_type(ActionType::GoTo)
                 .destination()
-                .page(page.id)
-                .xyz(pos.point.x.to_f32(), (page.size.y - y).to_f32(), None);
+                .page(*page_ref)
+                .xyz(pos.point.x.to_f32(), (page.content.size.y - y).to_f32(), None);
         }
     }
 
     annotations.finish();
     page_writer.finish();
 
-    ctx.pdf
-        .stream(content_id, page.content.wait())
+    chunk
+        .stream(content_id, page.content.content.wait())
         .filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
 }
 
-/// Write the page labels.
-/// They are numbered according to the page's final number, considering pages
-/// which were removed from export, and not according to the page's real or
-/// logical number in the initial Typst document.
-pub(crate) fn write_page_labels(ctx: &mut PdfContext) -> Vec<(NonZeroUsize, Ref)> {
-    // If there is no exported page labeled, we skip the writing
-    if !ctx.pages.iter().filter_map(Option::as_ref).any(|p| {
-        p.label
-            .as_ref()
-            .is_some_and(|l| l.prefix.is_some() || l.style.is_some())
-    }) {
-        return Vec::new();
-    }
-
-    let mut result = vec![];
-    let empty_label = PdfPageLabel::default();
-    let mut prev: Option<&PdfPageLabel> = None;
-
-    // Skip non-exported pages for numbering.
-    for (i, page) in ctx.pages.iter().filter_map(Option::as_ref).enumerate() {
-        let nr = NonZeroUsize::new(1 + i).unwrap();
-        // If there are pages with empty labels between labeled pages, we must
-        // write empty PageLabel entries.
-        let label = page.label.as_ref().unwrap_or(&empty_label);
-
-        if let Some(pre) = prev {
-            if label.prefix == pre.prefix
-                && label.style == pre.style
-                && label.offset == pre.offset.map(|n| n.saturating_add(1))
-            {
-                prev = Some(label);
-                continue;
-            }
-        }
-
-        let id = ctx.alloc.bump();
-        let mut entry = ctx.pdf.indirect(id).start::<PageLabel>();
-
-        // Only add what is actually provided. Don't add empty prefix string if
-        // it wasn't given for example.
-        if let Some(prefix) = &label.prefix {
-            entry.prefix(TextStr(prefix));
-        }
-
-        if let Some(style) = label.style {
-            entry.style(to_pdf_numbering_style(style));
-        }
-
-        if let Some(offset) = label.offset {
-            entry.offset(offset.get() as i32);
-        }
-
-        result.push((nr, id));
-        prev = Some(label);
-    }
-
-    result
-}
-
 /// Specification for a PDF page label.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Hash, Default)]
-struct PdfPageLabel {
+pub(crate) struct PdfPageLabel {
     /// Can be any string or none. Will always be prepended to the numbering style.
-    prefix: Option<EcoString>,
+    pub prefix: Option<EcoString>,
     /// Based on the numbering pattern.
     ///
     /// If `None` or numbering is a function, the field will be empty.
-    style: Option<PdfPageLabelStyle>,
+    pub style: Option<PdfPageLabelStyle>,
     /// Offset for the page label start.
     ///
     /// Describes where to start counting from when setting a style.
     /// (Has to be greater or equal than 1)
-    offset: Option<NonZeroUsize>,
+    pub offset: Option<NonZeroUsize>,
 }
 
 /// A PDF page label number style.
 #[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Hash)]
-enum PdfPageLabelStyle {
+pub enum PdfPageLabelStyle {
     /// Decimal arabic numerals (1, 2, 3).
     Arabic,
     /// Lowercase roman numerals (i, ii, iii).
@@ -413,708 +275,20 @@ impl PdfPageLabel {
     }
 }
 
-/// Data for an exported page.
-pub struct EncodedPage {
-    /// The indirect object id of the page.
-    pub id: Ref,
-    /// The page's dimensions.
-    pub size: Size,
-    /// The page's content stream.
-    pub content: Deferred<Vec<u8>>,
-    /// Whether the page uses opacities.
-    pub uses_opacities: bool,
-    /// Links in the PDF coordinate system.
-    pub links: Vec<(Destination, Rect)>,
-    /// The page's used resources
-    pub resources: HashMap<PageResource, usize>,
-    /// The page's PDF label.
-    label: Option<PdfPageLabel>,
-}
-
-/// Represents a resource being used in a PDF page by its name.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Ord, PartialOrd)]
-pub struct PageResource {
-    kind: ResourceKind,
-    name: EcoString,
-}
-
-impl PageResource {
-    pub fn new(kind: ResourceKind, name: EcoString) -> Self {
-        Self { kind, name }
-    }
-}
-
-/// A kind of resource being used in a PDF page.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Ord, PartialOrd)]
-pub enum ResourceKind {
-    XObject,
-    Font,
-    Gradient,
-    Pattern,
-    ExtGState,
-}
-
-impl PageResource {
-    /// Returns the name of the resource.
-    pub fn name(&self) -> Name<'_> {
-        Name(self.name.as_bytes())
-    }
-
-    /// Returns whether the resource is an XObject.
-    pub fn is_x_object(&self) -> bool {
-        matches!(self.kind, ResourceKind::XObject)
-    }
-
-    /// Returns whether the resource is a font.
-    pub fn is_font(&self) -> bool {
-        matches!(self.kind, ResourceKind::Font)
-    }
-
-    /// Returns whether the resource is a gradient.
-    pub fn is_gradient(&self) -> bool {
-        matches!(self.kind, ResourceKind::Gradient)
-    }
-
-    /// Returns whether the resource is a pattern.
-    pub fn is_pattern(&self) -> bool {
-        matches!(self.kind, ResourceKind::Pattern)
-    }
-
-    /// Returns whether the resource is an external graphics state.
-    pub fn is_ext_g_state(&self) -> bool {
-        matches!(self.kind, ResourceKind::ExtGState)
-    }
-}
-
-/// An exporter for the contents of a single PDF page.
-pub struct PageContext<'a, 'b> {
-    pub(crate) parent: &'a mut PdfContext<'b>,
-    pub content: Content,
-    state: State,
-    saves: Vec<State>,
-    pub bottom: f32,
-    uses_opacities: bool,
-    links: Vec<(Destination, Rect)>,
-    /// Keep track of the resources being used in the page.
-    pub resources: HashMap<PageResource, usize>,
-}
-
-impl<'a, 'b> PageContext<'a, 'b> {
-    pub fn new(parent: &'a mut PdfContext<'b>, size: Size) -> Self {
-        PageContext {
-            parent,
-            uses_opacities: false,
-            content: Content::new(),
-            state: State::new(size),
-            saves: vec![],
-            bottom: 0.0,
-            links: vec![],
-            resources: HashMap::default(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// A simulated graphics state used to deduplicate graphics state changes and
-/// keep track of the current transformation matrix for link annotations.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-struct State {
-    /// The transform of the current item.
-    transform: Transform,
-    /// The transform of first hard frame in the hierarchy.
-    container_transform: Transform,
-    /// The size of the first hard frame in the hierarchy.
-    size: Size,
-    font: Option<(Font, Abs)>,
-    fill: Option<Paint>,
-    fill_space: Option<Name<'static>>,
-    external_graphics_state: Option<ExtGState>,
-    stroke: Option<FixedStroke>,
-    stroke_space: Option<Name<'static>>,
-    text_rendering_mode: TextRenderingMode,
-}
-
-impl State {
-    /// Creates a new, clean state for a given page `size`.
-    pub fn new(size: Size) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            transform: Transform::identity(),
-            container_transform: Transform::identity(),
-            size,
-            font: None,
-            fill: None,
-            fill_space: None,
-            external_graphics_state: None,
-            stroke: None,
-            stroke_space: None,
-            text_rendering_mode: TextRenderingMode::Fill,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Creates the [`Transforms`] structure for the current item.
-    pub fn transforms(&self, size: Size, pos: Point) -> Transforms {
-        Transforms {
-            transform: self.transform.pre_concat(Transform::translate(pos.x, pos.y)),
-            container_transform: self.container_transform,
-            container_size: self.size,
-            size,
+impl PdfPageLabelStyle {
+    pub fn to_pdf_numbering_style(self) -> NumberingStyle {
+        match self {
+            PdfPageLabelStyle::Arabic => NumberingStyle::Arabic,
+            PdfPageLabelStyle::LowerRoman => NumberingStyle::LowerRoman,
+            PdfPageLabelStyle::UpperRoman => NumberingStyle::UpperRoman,
+            PdfPageLabelStyle::LowerAlpha => NumberingStyle::LowerAlpha,
+            PdfPageLabelStyle::UpperAlpha => NumberingStyle::UpperAlpha,
         }
     }
 }
 
-/// Subset of the state used to calculate the transform of gradients and patterns.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
-pub(super) struct Transforms {
-    /// The transform of the current item.
-    pub transform: Transform,
-    /// The transform of first hard frame in the hierarchy.
-    pub container_transform: Transform,
-    /// The size of the first hard frame in the hierarchy.
-    pub container_size: Size,
-    /// The size of the item.
-    pub size: Size,
-}
-
-impl PageContext<'_, '_> {
-    fn save_state(&mut self) {
-        self.saves.push(self.state.clone());
-        self.content.save_state();
-    }
-
-    fn restore_state(&mut self) {
-        self.content.restore_state();
-        self.state = self.saves.pop().expect("missing state save");
-    }
-
-    fn set_external_graphics_state(&mut self, graphics_state: &ExtGState) {
-        let current_state = self.state.external_graphics_state.as_ref();
-        if current_state != Some(graphics_state) {
-            let index = self.parent.extg_map.insert(*graphics_state);
-            let name = eco_format!("Gs{index}");
-            self.content.set_parameters(Name(name.as_bytes()));
-            self.resources
-                .insert(PageResource::new(ResourceKind::ExtGState, name), index);
-
-            if graphics_state.uses_opacities() {
-                self.uses_opacities = true;
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn set_opacities(&mut self, stroke: Option<&FixedStroke>, fill: Option<&Paint>) {
-        let stroke_opacity = stroke
-            .map(|stroke| {
-                let color = match &stroke.paint {
-                    Paint::Solid(color) => *color,
-                    Paint::Gradient(_) | Paint::Pattern(_) => return 255,
-                };
-
-                color.alpha().map_or(255, |v| (v * 255.0).round() as u8)
-            })
-            .unwrap_or(255);
-        let fill_opacity = fill
-            .map(|paint| {
-                let color = match paint {
-                    Paint::Solid(color) => *color,
-                    Paint::Gradient(_) | Paint::Pattern(_) => return 255,
-                };
-
-                color.alpha().map_or(255, |v| (v * 255.0).round() as u8)
-            })
-            .unwrap_or(255);
-        self.set_external_graphics_state(&ExtGState { stroke_opacity, fill_opacity });
-    }
-
-    pub fn transform(&mut self, transform: Transform) {
-        let Transform { sx, ky, kx, sy, tx, ty } = transform;
-        self.state.transform = self.state.transform.pre_concat(transform);
-        if self.state.container_transform.is_identity() {
-            self.state.container_transform = self.state.transform;
-        }
-        self.content.transform([
-            sx.get() as _,
-            ky.get() as _,
-            kx.get() as _,
-            sy.get() as _,
-            tx.to_f32(),
-            ty.to_f32(),
-        ]);
-    }
-
-    fn group_transform(&mut self, transform: Transform) {
-        self.state.container_transform =
-            self.state.container_transform.pre_concat(transform);
-    }
-
-    fn set_font(&mut self, font: &Font, size: Abs) {
-        if self.state.font.as_ref().map(|(f, s)| (f, *s)) != Some((font, size)) {
-            let index = self.parent.font_map.insert(font.clone());
-            let name = eco_format!("F{index}");
-            self.content.set_font(Name(name.as_bytes()), size.to_f32());
-            self.resources
-                .insert(PageResource::new(ResourceKind::Font, name), index);
-            self.state.font = Some((font.clone(), size));
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn size(&mut self, size: Size) {
-        self.state.size = size;
-    }
-
-    fn set_fill(&mut self, fill: &Paint, on_text: bool, transforms: Transforms) {
-        if self.state.fill.as_ref() != Some(fill)
-            || matches!(self.state.fill, Some(Paint::Gradient(_)))
-        {
-            fill.set_as_fill(self, on_text, transforms);
-            self.state.fill = Some(fill.clone());
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn set_fill_color_space(&mut self, space: Name<'static>) {
-        if self.state.fill_space != Some(space) {
-            self.content.set_fill_color_space(ColorSpaceOperand::Named(space));
-            self.state.fill_space = Some(space);
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn reset_fill_color_space(&mut self) {
-        self.state.fill_space = None;
-    }
-
-    fn set_stroke(
-        &mut self,
-        stroke: &FixedStroke,
-        on_text: bool,
-        transforms: Transforms,
-    ) {
-        if self.state.stroke.as_ref() != Some(stroke)
-            || matches!(
-                self.state.stroke.as_ref().map(|s| &s.paint),
-                Some(Paint::Gradient(_))
-            )
-        {
-            let FixedStroke { paint, thickness, cap, join, dash, miter_limit } = stroke;
-            paint.set_as_stroke(self, on_text, transforms);
-
-            self.content.set_line_width(thickness.to_f32());
-            if self.state.stroke.as_ref().map(|s| &s.cap) != Some(cap) {
-                self.content.set_line_cap(to_pdf_line_cap(*cap));
-            }
-            if self.state.stroke.as_ref().map(|s| &s.join) != Some(join) {
-                self.content.set_line_join(to_pdf_line_join(*join));
-            }
-            if self.state.stroke.as_ref().map(|s| &s.dash) != Some(dash) {
-                if let Some(pattern) = dash {
-                    self.content.set_dash_pattern(
-                        pattern.array.iter().map(|l| l.to_f32()),
-                        pattern.phase.to_f32(),
-                    );
-                } else {
-                    self.content.set_dash_pattern([], 0.0);
-                }
-            }
-            if self.state.stroke.as_ref().map(|s| &s.miter_limit) != Some(miter_limit) {
-                self.content.set_miter_limit(miter_limit.get() as f32);
-            }
-            self.state.stroke = Some(stroke.clone());
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn set_stroke_color_space(&mut self, space: Name<'static>) {
-        if self.state.stroke_space != Some(space) {
-            self.content.set_stroke_color_space(ColorSpaceOperand::Named(space));
-            self.state.stroke_space = Some(space);
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn reset_stroke_color_space(&mut self) {
-        self.state.stroke_space = None;
-    }
-
-    fn set_text_rendering_mode(&mut self, mode: TextRenderingMode) {
-        if self.state.text_rendering_mode != mode {
-            self.content.set_text_rendering_mode(mode);
-            self.state.text_rendering_mode = mode;
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Encode a frame into the content stream.
-pub(crate) fn write_frame(ctx: &mut PageContext, frame: &Frame) {
-    for &(pos, ref item) in frame.items() {
-        let x = pos.x.to_f32();
-        let y = pos.y.to_f32();
-        match item {
-            FrameItem::Group(group) => write_group(ctx, pos, group),
-            FrameItem::Text(text) => write_text(ctx, pos, text),
-            FrameItem::Shape(shape, _) => write_shape(ctx, pos, shape),
-            FrameItem::Image(image, size, _) => write_image(ctx, x, y, image, *size),
-            FrameItem::Link(dest, size) => write_link(ctx, pos, dest, *size),
-            FrameItem::Tag(_) => {}
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Encode a group into the content stream.
-fn write_group(ctx: &mut PageContext, pos: Point, group: &GroupItem) {
-    let translation = Transform::translate(pos.x, pos.y);
-
-    ctx.save_state();
-
-    if group.frame.kind().is_hard() {
-        ctx.group_transform(
-            ctx.state
-                .transform
-                .post_concat(ctx.state.container_transform.invert().unwrap())
-                .pre_concat(translation)
-                .pre_concat(group.transform),
-        );
-        ctx.size(group.frame.size());
-    }
-
-    ctx.transform(translation.pre_concat(group.transform));
-    if let Some(clip_path) = &group.clip_path {
-        write_path(ctx, 0.0, 0.0, clip_path);
-        ctx.content.clip_nonzero();
-        ctx.content.end_path();
-    }
-
-    write_frame(ctx, &group.frame);
-    ctx.restore_state();
-}
-
-/// Encode a text run into the content stream.
-fn write_text(ctx: &mut PageContext, pos: Point, text: &TextItem) {
-    let ttf = text.font.ttf();
-    let tables = ttf.tables();
-
-    // If the text run contains either only color glyphs (used for emojis for
-    // example) or normal text we can render it directly
-    let has_color_glyphs = tables.sbix.is_some()
-        || tables.cbdt.is_some()
-        || tables.svg.is_some()
-        || tables.colr.is_some();
-    if !has_color_glyphs {
-        write_normal_text(ctx, pos, TextItemView::all_of(text));
-        return;
-    }
-
-    let color_glyph_count =
-        text.glyphs.iter().filter(|g| is_color_glyph(&text.font, g)).count();
-
-    if color_glyph_count == text.glyphs.len() {
-        write_color_glyphs(ctx, pos, TextItemView::all_of(text));
-    } else if color_glyph_count == 0 {
-        write_normal_text(ctx, pos, TextItemView::all_of(text));
-    } else {
-        // Otherwise we need to split it in smaller text runs
-        let mut offset = 0;
-        let mut position_in_run = Abs::zero();
-        for (color, sub_run) in
-            text.glyphs.group_by_key(|g| is_color_glyph(&text.font, g))
-        {
-            let end = offset + sub_run.len();
-
-            // Build a sub text-run
-            let text_item_view = TextItemView::from_glyph_range(text, offset..end);
-
-            // Adjust the position of the run on the line
-            let pos = pos + Point::new(position_in_run, Abs::zero());
-            position_in_run += text_item_view.width();
-            offset = end;
-            // Actually write the sub text-run
-            if color {
-                write_color_glyphs(ctx, pos, text_item_view);
-            } else {
-                write_normal_text(ctx, pos, text_item_view);
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-// Encodes a text run (without any color glyph) into the content stream.
-fn write_normal_text(ctx: &mut PageContext, pos: Point, text: TextItemView) {
-    let x = pos.x.to_f32();
-    let y = pos.y.to_f32();
-
-    *ctx.parent.languages.entry(text.item.lang).or_insert(0) += text.glyph_range.len();
-
-    let glyph_set = ctx.parent.glyph_sets.entry(text.item.font.clone()).or_default();
-    for g in text.glyphs() {
-        let t = text.text();
-        let segment = &t[g.range()];
-        glyph_set.entry(g.id).or_insert_with(|| segment.into());
-    }
-
-    let fill_transform = ctx.state.transforms(Size::zero(), pos);
-    ctx.set_fill(&text.item.fill, true, fill_transform);
-
-    let stroke = text.item.stroke.as_ref().and_then(|stroke| {
-        if stroke.thickness.to_f32() > 0.0 {
-            Some(stroke)
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
-    });
-
-    if let Some(stroke) = stroke {
-        ctx.set_stroke(stroke, true, fill_transform);
-        ctx.set_text_rendering_mode(TextRenderingMode::FillStroke);
-    } else {
-        ctx.set_text_rendering_mode(TextRenderingMode::Fill);
-    }
-
-    ctx.set_font(&text.item.font, text.item.size);
-    ctx.set_opacities(text.item.stroke.as_ref(), Some(&text.item.fill));
-    ctx.content.begin_text();
-
-    // Position the text.
-    ctx.content.set_text_matrix([1.0, 0.0, 0.0, -1.0, x, y]);
-
-    let mut positioned = ctx.content.show_positioned();
-    let mut items = positioned.items();
-    let mut adjustment = Em::zero();
-    let mut encoded = vec![];
-
-    // Write the glyphs with kerning adjustments.
-    for glyph in text.glyphs() {
-        adjustment += glyph.x_offset;
-
-        if !adjustment.is_zero() {
-            if !encoded.is_empty() {
-                items.show(Str(&encoded));
-                encoded.clear();
-            }
-
-            items.adjust(-adjustment.to_font_units());
-            adjustment = Em::zero();
-        }
-
-        let cid = crate::font::glyph_cid(&text.item.font, glyph.id);
-        encoded.push((cid >> 8) as u8);
-        encoded.push((cid & 0xff) as u8);
-
-        if let Some(advance) = text.item.font.advance(glyph.id) {
-            adjustment += glyph.x_advance - advance;
-        }
-
-        adjustment -= glyph.x_offset;
-    }
-
-    if !encoded.is_empty() {
-        items.show(Str(&encoded));
-    }
-
-    items.finish();
-    positioned.finish();
-    ctx.content.end_text();
-}
-
-// Encodes a text run made only of color glyphs into the content stream
-fn write_color_glyphs(ctx: &mut PageContext, pos: Point, text: TextItemView) {
-    let x = pos.x.to_f32();
-    let y = pos.y.to_f32();
-
-    let mut last_font = None;
-
-    ctx.content.begin_text();
-    ctx.content.set_text_matrix([1.0, 0.0, 0.0, -1.0, x, y]);
-    // So that the next call to ctx.set_font() will change the font to one that
-    // displays regular glyphs and not color glyphs.
-    ctx.state.font = None;
-
-    let glyph_set = ctx.parent.glyph_sets.entry(text.item.font.clone()).or_default();
-
-    for glyph in text.glyphs() {
-        // Retrieve the Type3 font reference and the glyph index in the font.
-        let (font, index) = ctx.parent.color_font_map.get(
-            &mut ctx.parent.alloc,
-            &text.item.font,
-            glyph.id,
-        );
-
-        if last_font != Some(font.get()) {
-            ctx.content.set_font(
-                Name(eco_format!("Cf{}", font.get()).as_bytes()),
-                text.item.size.to_f32(),
-            );
-            last_font = Some(font.get());
-        }
-
-        ctx.content.show(Str(&[index]));
-
-        glyph_set
-            .entry(glyph.id)
-            .or_insert_with(|| text.text()[glyph.range()].into());
-    }
-    ctx.content.end_text();
-}
-
-/// Encode a geometrical shape into the content stream.
-fn write_shape(ctx: &mut PageContext, pos: Point, shape: &Shape) {
-    let x = pos.x.to_f32();
-    let y = pos.y.to_f32();
-
-    let stroke = shape.stroke.as_ref().and_then(|stroke| {
-        if stroke.thickness.to_f32() > 0.0 {
-            Some(stroke)
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
-    });
-
-    if shape.fill.is_none() && stroke.is_none() {
-        return;
-    }
-
-    if let Some(fill) = &shape.fill {
-        ctx.set_fill(fill, false, ctx.state.transforms(shape.geometry.bbox_size(), pos));
-    }
-
-    if let Some(stroke) = stroke {
-        ctx.set_stroke(
-            stroke,
-            false,
-            ctx.state.transforms(shape.geometry.bbox_size(), pos),
-        );
-    }
-
-    ctx.set_opacities(stroke, shape.fill.as_ref());
-
-    match shape.geometry {
-        Geometry::Line(target) => {
-            let dx = target.x.to_f32();
-            let dy = target.y.to_f32();
-            ctx.content.move_to(x, y);
-            ctx.content.line_to(x + dx, y + dy);
-        }
-        Geometry::Rect(size) => {
-            let w = size.x.to_f32();
-            let h = size.y.to_f32();
-            if w.abs() > f32::EPSILON && h.abs() > f32::EPSILON {
-                ctx.content.rect(x, y, w, h);
-            }
-        }
-        Geometry::Path(ref path) => {
-            write_path(ctx, x, y, path);
-        }
-    }
-
-    match (&shape.fill, stroke) {
-        (None, None) => unreachable!(),
-        (Some(_), None) => ctx.content.fill_nonzero(),
-        (None, Some(_)) => ctx.content.stroke(),
-        (Some(_), Some(_)) => ctx.content.fill_nonzero_and_stroke(),
-    };
-}
-
-/// Encode a bezier path into the content stream.
-fn write_path(ctx: &mut PageContext, x: f32, y: f32, path: &Path) {
-    for elem in &path.0 {
-        match elem {
-            PathItem::MoveTo(p) => {
-                ctx.content.move_to(x + p.x.to_f32(), y + p.y.to_f32())
-            }
-            PathItem::LineTo(p) => {
-                ctx.content.line_to(x + p.x.to_f32(), y + p.y.to_f32())
-            }
-            PathItem::CubicTo(p1, p2, p3) => ctx.content.cubic_to(
-                x + p1.x.to_f32(),
-                y + p1.y.to_f32(),
-                x + p2.x.to_f32(),
-                y + p2.y.to_f32(),
-                x + p3.x.to_f32(),
-                y + p3.y.to_f32(),
-            ),
-            PathItem::ClosePath => ctx.content.close_path(),
-        };
-    }
-}
-
-/// Encode a vector or raster image into the content stream.
-fn write_image(ctx: &mut PageContext, x: f32, y: f32, image: &Image, size: Size) {
-    let index = ctx.parent.image_map.insert(image.clone());
-    ctx.parent
-        .image_deferred_map
-        .entry(index)
-        .or_insert_with(|| deferred_image(image.clone()));
-
-    let name = eco_format!("Im{index}");
-    let w = size.x.to_f32();
-    let h = size.y.to_f32();
-    ctx.content.save_state();
-    ctx.content.transform([w, 0.0, 0.0, -h, x, y + h]);
-
-    if let Some(alt) = image.alt() {
-        let mut image_span =
-            ctx.content.begin_marked_content_with_properties(Name(b"Span"));
-        let mut image_alt = image_span.properties();
-        image_alt.pair(Name(b"Alt"), pdf_writer::Str(alt.as_bytes()));
-        image_alt.finish();
-        image_span.finish();
-
-        ctx.content.x_object(Name(name.as_bytes()));
-        ctx.content.end_marked_content();
-    } else {
-        ctx.content.x_object(Name(name.as_bytes()));
-    }
-
-    ctx.resources
-        .insert(PageResource::new(ResourceKind::XObject, name.clone()), index);
-    ctx.content.restore_state();
-}
-
-/// Save a link for later writing in the annotations dictionary.
-fn write_link(ctx: &mut PageContext, pos: Point, dest: &Destination, size: Size) {
-    let mut min_x = Abs::inf();
-    let mut min_y = Abs::inf();
-    let mut max_x = -Abs::inf();
-    let mut max_y = -Abs::inf();
-
-    // Compute the bounding box of the transformed link.
-    for point in [
-        pos,
-        pos + Point::with_x(size.x),
-        pos + Point::with_y(size.y),
-        pos + size.to_point(),
-    ] {
-        let t = point.transform(ctx.state.transform);
-        min_x.set_min(t.x);
-        min_y.set_min(t.y);
-        max_x.set_max(t.x);
-        max_y.set_max(t.y);
-    }
-
-    let x1 = min_x.to_f32();
-    let x2 = max_x.to_f32();
-    let y1 = max_y.to_f32();
-    let y2 = min_y.to_f32();
-    let rect = Rect::new(x1, y1, x2, y2);
-
-    ctx.links.push((dest.clone(), rect));
-}
-
-fn to_pdf_line_cap(cap: LineCap) -> LineCapStyle {
-    match cap {
-        LineCap::Butt => LineCapStyle::ButtCap,
-        LineCap::Round => LineCapStyle::RoundCap,
-        LineCap::Square => LineCapStyle::ProjectingSquareCap,
-    }
-}
-
-fn to_pdf_line_join(join: LineJoin) -> LineJoinStyle {
-    match join {
-        LineJoin::Miter => LineJoinStyle::MiterJoin,
-        LineJoin::Round => LineJoinStyle::RoundJoin,
-        LineJoin::Bevel => LineJoinStyle::BevelJoin,
-    }
-}
-
-fn to_pdf_numbering_style(style: PdfPageLabelStyle) -> NumberingStyle {
-    match style {
-        PdfPageLabelStyle::Arabic => NumberingStyle::Arabic,
-        PdfPageLabelStyle::LowerRoman => NumberingStyle::LowerRoman,
-        PdfPageLabelStyle::UpperRoman => NumberingStyle::UpperRoman,
-        PdfPageLabelStyle::LowerAlpha => NumberingStyle::LowerAlpha,
-        PdfPageLabelStyle::UpperAlpha => NumberingStyle::UpperAlpha,
-    }
+/// Data for an exported page.
+pub struct EncodedPage {
+    pub content: content::Encoded,
+    pub label: Option<PdfPageLabel>,
 }
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/pattern.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/pattern.rs
index 7fb3d6e8..e06c04f8 100644
--- a/crates/typst-pdf/src/pattern.rs
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/pattern.rs
@@ -1,88 +1,72 @@
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
 use ecow::eco_format;
-use pdf_writer::types::{ColorSpaceOperand, PaintType, TilingType};
-use pdf_writer::{Filter, Finish, Name, Rect};
+use pdf_writer::{
+    types::{ColorSpaceOperand, PaintType, TilingType},
+    Filter, Name, Rect, Ref,
+};
+
 use typst::layout::{Abs, Ratio, Transform};
 use typst::utils::Numeric;
 use typst::visualize::{Pattern, RelativeTo};
 
-use crate::color::PaintEncode;
-use crate::page::{construct_page, PageContext, PageResource, ResourceKind, Transforms};
-use crate::{transform_to_array, PdfContext};
+use crate::{color::PaintEncode, resources::Remapper, Resources, WithGlobalRefs};
+use crate::{content, resources::ResourcesRefs};
+use crate::{transform_to_array, PdfChunk};
 
 /// Writes the actual patterns (tiling patterns) to the PDF.
 /// This is performed once after writing all pages.
-pub(crate) fn write_patterns(ctx: &mut PdfContext) {
-    for PdfPattern { transform, pattern, content, resources } in ctx.pattern_map.items() {
-        let tiling = ctx.alloc.bump();
-        ctx.pattern_refs.push(tiling);
-
-        let mut tiling_pattern = ctx.pdf.tiling_pattern(tiling, content);
-        tiling_pattern
-            .tiling_type(TilingType::ConstantSpacing)
-            .paint_type(PaintType::Colored)
-            .bbox(Rect::new(
-                0.0,
-                0.0,
-                pattern.size().x.to_pt() as _,
-                pattern.size().y.to_pt() as _,
-            ))
-            .x_step((pattern.size().x + pattern.spacing().x).to_pt() as _)
-            .y_step((pattern.size().y + pattern.spacing().y).to_pt() as _);
-
-        let mut resources_map = tiling_pattern.resources();
-
-        resources_map.x_objects().pairs(
-            resources
-                .iter()
-                .filter(|(res, _)| res.is_x_object())
-                .map(|(res, ref_)| (res.name(), ctx.image_refs[*ref_])),
-        );
-
-        resources_map.fonts().pairs(
-            resources
-                .iter()
-                .filter(|(res, _)| res.is_font())
-                .map(|(res, ref_)| (res.name(), ctx.font_refs[*ref_])),
-        );
-
-        ctx.colors
-            .write_color_spaces(resources_map.color_spaces(), &mut ctx.alloc);
-
-        resources_map
-            .patterns()
-            .pairs(
-                resources
-                    .iter()
-                    .filter(|(res, _)| res.is_pattern())
-                    .map(|(res, ref_)| (res.name(), ctx.pattern_refs[*ref_])),
-            )
-            .pairs(
-                resources
-                    .iter()
-                    .filter(|(res, _)| res.is_gradient())
-                    .map(|(res, ref_)| (res.name(), ctx.gradient_refs[*ref_])),
-            );
-
-        resources_map.ext_g_states().pairs(
-            resources
-                .iter()
-                .filter(|(res, _)| res.is_ext_g_state())
-                .map(|(res, ref_)| (res.name(), ctx.ext_gs_refs[*ref_])),
-        );
-
-        resources_map.finish();
-        tiling_pattern
-            .matrix(transform_to_array(
-                transform
-                    .pre_concat(Transform::scale(Ratio::one(), -Ratio::one()))
-                    .post_concat(Transform::translate(Abs::zero(), pattern.spacing().y)),
-            ))
-            .filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
-    }
+pub fn write_patterns(context: &WithGlobalRefs) -> (PdfChunk, HashMap<PdfPattern, Ref>) {
+    let mut chunk = PdfChunk::new();
+    let mut out = HashMap::new();
+    context.resources.traverse(&mut |resources| {
+        let Some(patterns) = &resources.patterns else {
+            return;
+        };
+
+        for pdf_pattern in patterns.remapper.items() {
+            let PdfPattern { transform, pattern, content, .. } = pdf_pattern;
+            if out.contains_key(pdf_pattern) {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            let tiling = chunk.alloc();
+            out.insert(pdf_pattern.clone(), tiling);
+
+            let mut tiling_pattern = chunk.tiling_pattern(tiling, content);
+            tiling_pattern
+                .tiling_type(TilingType::ConstantSpacing)
+                .paint_type(PaintType::Colored)
+                .bbox(Rect::new(
+                    0.0,
+                    0.0,
+                    pattern.size().x.to_pt() as _,
+                    pattern.size().y.to_pt() as _,
+                ))
+                .x_step((pattern.size().x + pattern.spacing().x).to_pt() as _)
+                .y_step((pattern.size().y + pattern.spacing().y).to_pt() as _);
+
+            // The actual resource dict will be written in a later step
+            tiling_pattern.pair(Name(b"Resources"), patterns.resources.reference);
+
+            tiling_pattern
+                .matrix(transform_to_array(
+                    transform
+                        .pre_concat(Transform::scale(Ratio::one(), -Ratio::one()))
+                        .post_concat(Transform::translate(
+                            Abs::zero(),
+                            pattern.spacing().y,
+                        )),
+                ))
+                .filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
+        }
+    });
+
+    (chunk, out)
 }
 
 /// A pattern and its transform.
-#[derive(Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+#[derive(Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Debug)]
 pub struct PdfPattern {
     /// The transform to apply to the pattern.
     pub transform: Transform,
@@ -90,17 +74,20 @@ pub struct PdfPattern {
     pub pattern: Pattern,
     /// The rendered pattern.
     pub content: Vec<u8>,
-    /// The resources used by the pattern.
-    pub resources: Vec<(PageResource, usize)>,
 }
 
 /// Registers a pattern with the PDF.
 fn register_pattern(
-    ctx: &mut PageContext,
+    ctx: &mut content::Builder,
     pattern: &Pattern,
     on_text: bool,
-    mut transforms: Transforms,
+    mut transforms: content::Transforms,
 ) -> usize {
+    let patterns = ctx
+        .resources
+        .patterns
+        .get_or_insert_with(|| Box::new(PatternRemapper::new()));
+
     // Edge cases for strokes.
     if transforms.size.x.is_zero() {
         transforms.size.x = Abs::pt(1.0);
@@ -116,22 +103,24 @@ fn register_pattern(
     };
 
     // Render the body.
-    let content = construct_page(ctx.parent, pattern.frame());
+    let content = content::build(&mut patterns.resources, pattern.frame(), None);
 
-    let mut pdf_pattern = PdfPattern {
+    let pdf_pattern = PdfPattern {
         transform,
         pattern: pattern.clone(),
         content: content.content.wait().clone(),
-        resources: content.resources.into_iter().collect(),
     };
 
-    pdf_pattern.resources.sort();
-
-    ctx.parent.pattern_map.insert(pdf_pattern)
+    patterns.remapper.insert(pdf_pattern)
 }
 
 impl PaintEncode for Pattern {
-    fn set_as_fill(&self, ctx: &mut PageContext, on_text: bool, transforms: Transforms) {
+    fn set_as_fill(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut content::Builder,
+        on_text: bool,
+        transforms: content::Transforms,
+    ) {
         ctx.reset_fill_color_space();
 
         let index = register_pattern(ctx, self, on_text, transforms);
@@ -140,15 +129,13 @@ impl PaintEncode for Pattern {
 
         ctx.content.set_fill_color_space(ColorSpaceOperand::Pattern);
         ctx.content.set_fill_pattern(None, name);
-        ctx.resources
-            .insert(PageResource::new(ResourceKind::Pattern, id), index);
     }
 
     fn set_as_stroke(
         &self,
-        ctx: &mut PageContext,
+        ctx: &mut content::Builder,
         on_text: bool,
-        transforms: Transforms,
+        transforms: content::Transforms,
     ) {
         ctx.reset_stroke_color_space();
 
@@ -158,7 +145,30 @@ impl PaintEncode for Pattern {
 
         ctx.content.set_stroke_color_space(ColorSpaceOperand::Pattern);
         ctx.content.set_stroke_pattern(None, name);
-        ctx.resources
-            .insert(PageResource::new(ResourceKind::Pattern, id), index);
+    }
+}
+
+/// De-duplicate patterns and the resources they require to be drawn.
+pub struct PatternRemapper<R> {
+    /// Pattern de-duplicator.
+    pub remapper: Remapper<PdfPattern>,
+    /// PDF resources that are used by these patterns.
+    pub resources: Resources<R>,
+}
+
+impl PatternRemapper<()> {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            remapper: Remapper::new("P"),
+            resources: Resources::default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Allocate a reference to the resource dictionary of these patterns.
+    pub fn with_refs(self, refs: &ResourcesRefs) -> PatternRemapper<Ref> {
+        PatternRemapper {
+            remapper: self.remapper,
+            resources: self.resources.with_refs(refs),
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/resources.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/resources.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..a0a7c71d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/resources.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,325 @@
+//! PDF resources.
+//!
+//! Resources are defined in dictionaries. They map identifiers such as `Im0` to
+//! a PDF reference. Each [content stream] is associated with a resource dictionary.
+//! The identifiers defined in the resources can then be used in content streams.
+//!
+//! [content stream]: `crate::content`
+
+use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap};
+use std::hash::Hash;
+
+use ecow::{eco_format, EcoString};
+use pdf_writer::{Dict, Finish, Name, Ref};
+use typst::text::Lang;
+use typst::{text::Font, utils::Deferred, visualize::Image};
+
+use crate::{
+    color::ColorSpaces, color_font::ColorFontMap, extg::ExtGState, gradient::PdfGradient,
+    image::EncodedImage, pattern::PatternRemapper, PdfChunk, Renumber, WithEverything,
+    WithResources,
+};
+
+/// All the resources that have been collected when traversing the document.
+///
+/// This does not allocate references to resources, only track what was used
+/// and deduplicate what can be deduplicated.
+///
+/// You may notice that this structure is a tree: [`PatternRemapper`] and
+/// [`ColorFontMap`] (that are present in the fields of [`Resources`]),
+/// themselves contain [`Resources`] (that will be called "sub-resources" from
+/// now on). Because color glyphs and patterns are defined using content
+/// streams, just like pages, they can refer to resources too, which are tracked
+/// by the respective sub-resources.
+///
+/// Each instance of this structure will become a `/Resources` dictionary in
+/// the final PDF. It is not possible to use a single shared dictionary for all
+/// pages, patterns and color fonts, because if a resource is listed in its own
+/// `/Resources` dictionary, some PDF readers will fail to open the document.
+///
+/// Because we need to lazily initialize sub-resources (we don't know how deep
+/// the tree will be before reading the document), and that this is done in a
+/// context where no PDF reference allocator is available, `Resources` are
+/// originally created with the type parameter `R = ()`. The reference for each
+/// dictionary will only be allocated in the next phase, once we know the shape
+/// of the tree, at which point `R` becomes `Ref`. No other value of `R` should
+/// ever exist.
+pub struct Resources<R = Ref> {
+    /// The global reference to this resource dictionary, or `()` if it has not
+    /// been allocated yet.
+    pub reference: R,
+
+    /// Handles color space writing.
+    pub colors: ColorSpaces,
+
+    /// Deduplicates fonts used across the document.
+    pub fonts: Remapper<Font>,
+    /// Deduplicates images used across the document.
+    pub images: Remapper<Image>,
+    /// Handles to deferred image conversions.
+    pub deferred_images: HashMap<usize, Deferred<EncodedImage>>,
+    /// Deduplicates gradients used across the document.
+    pub gradients: Remapper<PdfGradient>,
+    /// Deduplicates patterns used across the document.
+    pub patterns: Option<Box<PatternRemapper<R>>>,
+    /// Deduplicates external graphics states used across the document.
+    pub ext_gs: Remapper<ExtGState>,
+    /// Deduplicates color glyphs.
+    pub color_fonts: Option<Box<ColorFontMap<R>>>,
+
+    // The fields below do not correspond to actual resources that will be
+    // written in a dictionary, but are more meta-data about resources that
+    // can't really live somewhere else.
+    /// The number of glyphs for all referenced languages in the content stream.
+    /// We keep track of this to determine the main document language.
+    /// BTreeMap is used to write sorted list of languages to metadata.
+    pub languages: BTreeMap<Lang, usize>,
+
+    /// For each font a mapping from used glyphs to their text representation.
+    /// May contain multiple chars in case of ligatures or similar things. The
+    /// same glyph can have a different text representation within one document,
+    /// then we just save the first one. The resulting strings are used for the
+    /// PDF's /ToUnicode map for glyphs that don't have an entry in the font's
+    /// cmap. This is important for copy-paste and searching.
+    pub glyph_sets: HashMap<Font, BTreeMap<u16, EcoString>>,
+}
+
+impl<R: Renumber> Renumber for Resources<R> {
+    fn renumber(&mut self, offset: i32) {
+        self.reference.renumber(offset);
+
+        if let Some(color_fonts) = &mut self.color_fonts {
+            color_fonts.resources.renumber(offset);
+        }
+
+        if let Some(patterns) = &mut self.patterns {
+            patterns.resources.renumber(offset);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for Resources<()> {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Resources {
+            reference: (),
+            colors: ColorSpaces::default(),
+            fonts: Remapper::new("F"),
+            images: Remapper::new("Im"),
+            deferred_images: HashMap::new(),
+            gradients: Remapper::new("Gr"),
+            patterns: None,
+            ext_gs: Remapper::new("Gs"),
+            color_fonts: None,
+            languages: BTreeMap::new(),
+            glyph_sets: HashMap::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Resources<()> {
+    /// Associate a reference with this resource dictionary (and do so
+    /// recursively for sub-resources).
+    pub fn with_refs(self, refs: &ResourcesRefs) -> Resources<Ref> {
+        Resources {
+            reference: refs.reference,
+            colors: self.colors,
+            fonts: self.fonts,
+            images: self.images,
+            deferred_images: self.deferred_images,
+            gradients: self.gradients,
+            patterns: self
+                .patterns
+                .zip(refs.patterns.as_ref())
+                .map(|(p, r)| Box::new(p.with_refs(r))),
+            ext_gs: self.ext_gs,
+            color_fonts: self
+                .color_fonts
+                .zip(refs.color_fonts.as_ref())
+                .map(|(c, r)| Box::new(c.with_refs(r))),
+            languages: self.languages,
+            glyph_sets: self.glyph_sets,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<R> Resources<R> {
+    /// Run a function on this resource dictionary and all
+    /// of its sub-resources.
+    pub fn traverse<P>(&self, process: &mut P)
+    where
+        P: FnMut(&Self),
+    {
+        process(self);
+        if let Some(color_fonts) = &self.color_fonts {
+            color_fonts.resources.traverse(process)
+        }
+        if let Some(patterns) = &self.patterns {
+            patterns.resources.traverse(process)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// References for a resource tree.
+///
+/// This structure is a tree too, that should have the same structure as the
+/// corresponding `Resources`.
+pub struct ResourcesRefs {
+    pub reference: Ref,
+    pub color_fonts: Option<Box<ResourcesRefs>>,
+    pub patterns: Option<Box<ResourcesRefs>>,
+}
+
+impl Renumber for ResourcesRefs {
+    fn renumber(&mut self, offset: i32) {
+        self.reference.renumber(offset);
+        if let Some(color_fonts) = &mut self.color_fonts {
+            color_fonts.renumber(offset);
+        }
+        if let Some(patterns) = &mut self.patterns {
+            patterns.renumber(offset);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Allocate references for all resource dictionaries.
+pub fn alloc_resources_refs(context: &WithResources) -> (PdfChunk, ResourcesRefs) {
+    let mut chunk = PdfChunk::new();
+    /// Recursively explore resource dictionaries and assign them references.
+    fn refs_for(resources: &Resources<()>, chunk: &mut PdfChunk) -> ResourcesRefs {
+        ResourcesRefs {
+            reference: chunk.alloc(),
+            color_fonts: resources
+                .color_fonts
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|c| Box::new(refs_for(&c.resources, chunk))),
+            patterns: resources
+                .patterns
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|p| Box::new(refs_for(&p.resources, chunk))),
+        }
+    }
+
+    let refs = refs_for(&context.resources, &mut chunk);
+    (chunk, refs)
+}
+
+/// Write the resource dictionaries that will be referenced by all pages.
+///
+/// We add a reference to this dictionary to each page individually instead of
+/// to the root node of the page tree because using the resource inheritance
+/// feature breaks PDF merging with Apple Preview.
+///
+/// Also write resource dictionaries for Type3 fonts and patterns.
+pub fn write_resource_dictionaries(ctx: &WithEverything) -> (PdfChunk, ()) {
+    let mut chunk = PdfChunk::new();
+    let mut used_color_spaces = ColorSpaces::default();
+
+    ctx.resources.traverse(&mut |resources| {
+        used_color_spaces.merge(&resources.colors);
+
+        let images_ref = chunk.alloc.bump();
+        let patterns_ref = chunk.alloc.bump();
+        let ext_gs_states_ref = chunk.alloc.bump();
+        let color_spaces_ref = chunk.alloc.bump();
+
+        let mut color_font_slices = Vec::new();
+        let mut color_font_numbers = HashMap::new();
+        if let Some(color_fonts) = &resources.color_fonts {
+            for (_, font_slice) in color_fonts.iter() {
+                color_font_numbers.insert(font_slice.clone(), color_font_slices.len());
+                color_font_slices.push(font_slice);
+            }
+        }
+        let color_font_remapper = Remapper {
+            prefix: "Cf",
+            to_pdf: color_font_numbers,
+            to_items: color_font_slices,
+        };
+
+        resources
+            .images
+            .write(&ctx.references.images, &mut chunk.indirect(images_ref).dict());
+
+        let mut patterns_dict = chunk.indirect(patterns_ref).dict();
+        resources
+            .gradients
+            .write(&ctx.references.gradients, &mut patterns_dict);
+        if let Some(p) = &resources.patterns {
+            p.remapper.write(&ctx.references.patterns, &mut patterns_dict);
+        }
+        patterns_dict.finish();
+
+        resources
+            .ext_gs
+            .write(&ctx.references.ext_gs, &mut chunk.indirect(ext_gs_states_ref).dict());
+
+        let mut res_dict = chunk
+            .indirect(resources.reference)
+            .start::<pdf_writer::writers::Resources>();
+        res_dict.pair(Name(b"XObject"), images_ref);
+        res_dict.pair(Name(b"Pattern"), patterns_ref);
+        res_dict.pair(Name(b"ExtGState"), ext_gs_states_ref);
+        res_dict.pair(Name(b"ColorSpace"), color_spaces_ref);
+
+        // TODO: can't this be an indirect reference too?
+        let mut fonts_dict = res_dict.fonts();
+        resources.fonts.write(&ctx.references.fonts, &mut fonts_dict);
+        color_font_remapper.write(&ctx.references.color_fonts, &mut fonts_dict);
+        fonts_dict.finish();
+
+        res_dict.finish();
+
+        let color_spaces = chunk.indirect(color_spaces_ref).dict();
+        resources
+            .colors
+            .write_color_spaces(color_spaces, &ctx.globals.color_functions);
+    });
+
+    used_color_spaces.write_functions(&mut chunk, &ctx.globals.color_functions);
+
+    (chunk, ())
+}
+
+/// Assigns new, consecutive PDF-internal indices to items.
+pub struct Remapper<T> {
+    /// The prefix to use when naming these resources.
+    prefix: &'static str,
+    /// Forwards from the items to the pdf indices.
+    to_pdf: HashMap<T, usize>,
+    /// Backwards from the pdf indices to the items.
+    to_items: Vec<T>,
+}
+
+impl<T> Remapper<T>
+where
+    T: Eq + Hash + Clone,
+{
+    /// Create an empty mapping.
+    pub fn new(prefix: &'static str) -> Self {
+        Self { prefix, to_pdf: HashMap::new(), to_items: vec![] }
+    }
+
+    /// Insert an item in the mapping if it was not already present.
+    pub fn insert(&mut self, item: T) -> usize {
+        let to_layout = &mut self.to_items;
+        *self.to_pdf.entry(item.clone()).or_insert_with(|| {
+            let pdf_index = to_layout.len();
+            to_layout.push(item);
+            pdf_index
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// All items in this
+    pub fn items(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &T> + '_ {
+        self.to_items.iter()
+    }
+
+    /// Write this list of items in a Resource dictionary.
+    fn write(&self, mapping: &HashMap<T, Ref>, dict: &mut Dict) {
+        for (number, item) in self.items().enumerate() {
+            let name = eco_format!("{}{}", self.prefix, number);
+            let reference = mapping[item];
+            dict.pair(Name(name.as_bytes()), reference);
+        }
+    }
+}